Boeing B-52 Stratofortress - Wikipedia

Strategische Bomber-Flugzeugfamilie von Boeing

Die Boeing B-52 Stratofortress ist ein amerikanischer strategischer Bomber mit Subsonic-Bombenanschlag mit langer Reichweite. Der B-52 wurde von Boeing entwickelt und gebaut, der weiterhin Support und Upgrades zur Verfügung gestellt hat. Es wird seit den 1950er Jahren von der United States Air Force (USAF) betrieben. Der Bomber ist in der Lage, bis zu 32.000 kg Waffen zu tragen ^[5] und hat eine typische Reichweite von mehr als 8.800 Meilen (14.080 km) ohne Luftbetankung. ^[6]

Beginnend mit dem erfolgreichen Vertragsangebot im Juni 1946 entwickelte sich das B-52-Design von einem geraden Flügelflugzeug mit sechs Turboprop-Motoren zum endgültigen Prototyp YB-52 mit acht Turbojet-Triebwerken und geschwungenen Flügeln. Die B-52 absolvierte ihren Erstflug im April 1952. Die B-52 Stratofortress wurde für den Transport von Atomwaffen für Abschreckungsmissionen aus der Zeit des Kalten Krieges gebaut und ersetzte die Convair B-36. Die B-52 ist seit mehreren Kriegen Veteran und hat im Kampf nur konventionelle Munition abgeworfen. Der offizielle Name der B-52 Stratofortress wird selten verwendet; informell wurde das Flugzeug allgemein als BUFF (Big Ugly Fat Fucker) bezeichnet. ^{[7][8][9][Note 1]}

Die B-52 ist seit 1955 im aktiven Dienst bei der USAF. Stand Dezember 2015 ^[update] 58 waren im aktiven Dienst mit 18 in Reserve. ^[11] Die Bomber flogen unter dem Strategic Air Command (SAC), bis sie 1992 eingestellt wurden und ihr Flugzeug in das Air Combat Command (ACC) aufgenommen wurde; 2010 wurden alle B-52-Stratofortresses vom ACC an das neu geschaffene Global Strike Command (AFGSC) der Air Force übergeben. Überlegene Leistung bei hohen Unterschallgeschwindigkeiten und relativ niedrigen Betriebskosten haben die B-52 trotz späterer, fortschrittlicherer Flugzeuge, darunter die gestrichene Mach 3 B-70 Valkyrie, den B-1 Lancer mit variabler Geometrie, im Einsatz Heimlichkeit B-2 Spirit. Die B-52 hat im Jahr 2015 sechzig Jahre ununterbrochenen Dienst bei ihrem ursprünglichen Betreiber geleistet. Nach einem Upgrade zwischen 2013 und 2015 wird erwartet, dass sie bis in die 2050er Jahre dienen wird. ^{[Note 2]}

Entwicklung [ edit ]

Origins [ edit ]

Modelle 462 (1946) ^[16] bis 464–35 (1948) ^[16]

Modelle 464-49 (1949) ^[16] bis B- 52A (1952)

Am 23. November 1945 gab das Air Materiel Command (AMC) die gewünschten Leistungsmerkmale für einen neuen strategischen Bomber heraus, "der in der Lage ist, die strategische Mission ohne Abhängigkeit von fortgeschrittenen und von anderen Ländern kontrollierten Stützpunkten durchzuführen". ^[17] ] Das Flugzeug sollte eine Besatzung von fünf oder mehr Turmgeschützern und eine sechs Mann starke Hilfsmannschaft haben. Es war erforderlich, bei 300 Meilen pro Stunde (260 Knoten, 480 km / h) auf 34.000 Fuß (10.400 m) mit einem Kampfradius von 5.000 Meilen (4.300 Seemeilen, 8.000 km) zu fahren. Die Bewaffnung sollte aus einer nicht näher spezifizierten Anzahl von 20-mm-Kanonen und 4.500 kg Bomben bestehen. ^[18] Am 13. Februar 1946 erließ die Luftwaffe mit Boeing, Consolidated Aircraft und Glenn L. Ausschreibungen für diese Spezifikationen Martin Company unterbreitet Vorschläge. ^[18]

Am 5. Juni 1946 wurde Boeings Modell 462 ein Flugzeug mit sechs Wright T35-Turboprops mit einem Bruttogewicht von 160.000 kg und einem Kampfradius von 3.110 Meilen (2.700 Nm) (5.010 km) wurde zum Sieger erklärt. ^[19] Am 28. Juni 1946 erhielt Boeing ein Auftragsschreiben über 1,7 Millionen US-Dollar für den Bau eines kompletten Modells der neuen XB-52 sowie zur Durchführung von Vorbereitungsarbeiten und Tests ^[20] Im Oktober 1946 äußerte die Luftwaffe jedoch Besorgnis über die schiere Größe des neuen Flugzeugs und die Unfähigkeit, die spezifizierten Konstruktionsanforderungen zu erfüllen. ^[21] Als Reaktion darauf produzierte Boeing das Modell 464, ein kleineres Modell mit vier Motorversion mit 230.000 Pfund (105.000 t) g) Bruttogewicht, das kurzzeitig als akzeptabel erachtet wurde. ^[21][22]

Im November 1946 äußerte der stellvertretende Leiter des Luftstabs für Forschung und Entwicklung, General Curtis LeMay, den Wunsch nach einer Reisegeschwindigkeit von 400 Meilen pro Stunde (345 kn (645 km / h), worauf Boeing mit einem Flugzeug mit einem Gewicht von 136.000 kg reagierte. ^[23] Im Dezember 1946 wurde Boeing aufgefordert, sein Design in einen viermotorigen Bomber mit einer Höchstgeschwindigkeit von 400 Meilen pro Stunde umzuwandeln , Reichweite von 12.000 Meilen (10.000 nmi, 19.300 km) und die Fähigkeit, eine Atomwaffe zu tragen; Insgesamt konnte das Flugzeug bis zu 220.000 kg wiegen. ^[24] Boeing reagierte mit zwei Modellen, die mit T35-Turboprops angetrieben wurden. Das Modell 464-16 war ein "nuklearer" Bomber mit einer Nutzlast von 10.000 Pfund (4.500 kg), während das Modell 464-17 ein Allzweckbomber mit einer Nutzlast von 9.000 Pfund (4.000 kg) war. ^[24] Aus Kostengründen Im Zusammenhang mit dem Kauf von zwei Spezialflugzeugen wählte die Luftwaffe das Modell 464-17 mit dem Verständnis, dass es für Nuklearangriffe angepasst werden könnte. ^[25]

Im Juni 1947 wurden die militärischen Anforderungen aktualisiert und das Modell 464-17 erfüllte sie alle ^[26] Für die Luftwaffe wurde es offensichtlich, dass die XB-52 selbst bei der aktualisierten Leistung bis zum Produktionsbeginn veraltet sein würde und gegenüber der Convair B-36 wenig Verbesserung bieten würde. Infolgedessen wurde das gesamte Projekt um sechs Monate verschoben. ^[27] In dieser Zeit perfektionierte Boeing das Design weiter, was das Modell 464-29 mit einer Höchstgeschwindigkeit von 455 Meilen pro Stunde (395 kn, 730 km) zur Folge hatte / h) und eine Reichweite von 5.000 Meilen. ^[28] Im September 1947 wurde das Heavy Bombardment Committee einberufen, um die Leistungsanforderungen für einen Atombomber zu ermitteln. Diese Anforderungen wurden am 8. Dezember 1947 formalisiert und erforderten eine Höchstgeschwindigkeit von 500 Meilen pro Stunde (440 kn, 800 km / h) und eine Reichweite von 8.000 Meilen (7.000 nm), weit über den Möglichkeiten von 464 bis 299. 19659031] Die endgültige Kündigung des Boeing-Vertrags am 11. Dezember 1947 wurde durch eine Bitte seines Präsidenten William McPherson Allen an den Sekretär der Luftwaffe Stuart Symington verhindert. ^[30] Allen vertrat die Ansicht, dass das Design an das Neue angepasst werden könne Luftfahrttechnologie und strengere Anforderungen. ^[31] Im Januar 1948 wurde Boeing beauftragt, die neuesten technologischen Innovationen, darunter Luftbetankung und den fliegenden Flügel, gründlich zu untersuchen. ^[32] Unter Hinweis auf Stabilitäts- und Kontrollprobleme, die Northrop mit seinem YB-35 und YB- Boeing beharrte auf einem konventionellen Flugzeug und legte im April 1948 einen Vorschlag in Höhe von 30 Millionen US-Dollar (heute 313 Millionen US-Dollar ^[33]) für Design, Konstruktion und Erprobung zweier Modell 464-35 pr vor Ototypes. ^[34] Weitere Revisionen während des Jahres 1948 führten zu einem Flugzeug mit einer Höchstgeschwindigkeit von 445 kn (825 km / h) auf 35700 Fuß (10.700 m), einer Reichweite von 6.909 Meilen (6.005 sm, 11.125 km) ) und ein Bruttogewicht von 280.000 Pfund (125.000 kg), das 10.000 Pfund (4.500 kg) Bomben und 75225 Liter Kraftstoff enthielt. ^[35][36]

Design Anstrengung [ edit ]

XB-52 Prototyp auf Fluglinie (X-4 im Vordergrund)

Im Mai 1948 bat AMC Boeing, das zuvor weggeworfene, jetzt aber kraftstoffsparendere Strahltriebwerk in das Design zu integrieren. ^[37] Daraus entstand Bei der Entwicklung einer weiteren Überarbeitung - im Juli 1948 ersetzte das Modell 464-40 die Turboprops durch J40-Turbinen von Westinghouse. ^[38] Der Projektleiter der Air Force, der das Modell 464-40 überprüfte, war positiv beeindruckt, zumal er bereits nachgedacht hatte auf ähnliche Weise. Dennoch war die Regierung besorgt über den hohen Kraftstoffverbrauch der damaligen Düsentriebwerke und wies darauf hin, dass Boeing weiterhin das Turboprop-Modell 464-35 als Basis für die XB-52 verwendet. Obwohl er sich einig war, dass der Turbojet-Antrieb die Zukunft sei, war General Howard A. Craig, stellvertretender Stabschef für Material, nicht besonders an einer Jet-betriebenen B-52 interessiert, da er der Meinung war, das Jet-Triebwerk sei noch nicht ausreichend fortgeschritten, um dies zuzulassen Überspringen einer Turboprop-Zwischenstufe. Boeing wurde jedoch aufgefordert, die Turbojet-Studien auch ohne erwartete Verpflichtung zum Düsenantrieb fortzusetzen. ^[39][40]

Am Donnerstag, dem 21. Oktober 1948, stellten die Boeing-Ingenieure George S. Schairer, Art Carlsen und Vaughn Blumenthal das Design eines viermotorigen Turboprop-Bombers vor an den Chef der Bomberentwicklung, Colonel Pete Warden. Warden wurde von den geplanten Flugzeugen enttäuscht und fragte, ob das Boeing-Team einen Vorschlag für einen vierstrahligen Turbojet-Bomber vorlegen könne. Zusammen mit Ed Wells, dem Vice President of Engineering von Boeing, arbeiteten die Ingenieure in dieser Nacht im Hotel Van Cleve in Dayton, Ohio, und bauten den Vorschlag von Boeing als einen viermotorigen Turbojet-Bomber um. Am Freitag schaute sich Colonel Warden die Informationen an und bat um ein besseres Design. Zurück im Hotel, wurde das Boeing-Team von Bob Withington und Maynard Pennell unterstützt, zwei führenden Boeing-Ingenieuren, die aus anderen Gründen in der Stadt waren. ^[41]

Am späten Freitagabend hatten sie ein neues Flugzeug aufgestellt. Das neue Design (464–49) basiert auf dem Grundriss des B-47 Stratojet mit 35 Grad geschwungenen Flügeln, acht Motoren, die in vier Unterflügelgehäusen gepaart sind, und Fahrradfahrwerken mit Flügelspitzen-Auslegerrädern. ^[42] Ein bemerkenswertes Merkmal von Das Fahrwerk war die Fähigkeit, das Hauptfahrwerk um 20 ° von der Mittellinie des Flugzeugs aus zu schwenken, um die Sicherheit bei Landungen mit Seitenwind zu erhöhen. ^[43] Nach einem Ausflug in einen Hobby-Shop für Vorräte machte sich Schairer daran, ein Modell zu bauen. Der Rest des Teams konzentrierte sich auf Gewichts- und Leistungsdaten. Wells, der auch ein erfahrener Künstler war, vervollständigte die Flugzeugzeichnungen. Am Sonntag wurde ein Stenograph beauftragt, eine saubere Kopie des Vorschlags einzugeben. Am Montag präsentierte Schairer Colonel Warden mit einem 33 Seiten langen Vorschlag und einem 14-Zoll-Modell. ^[41] Das Flugzeug sollte alle Konstruktionsanforderungen übertreffen. ^[44]

Obwohl die Modellinspektion im April in voller Größe durchgeführt wurde 1949 war im Allgemeinen günstig, die Reichweite wurde erneut problematisch, da die J40 und das frühe Modell J57 einen übermäßigen Kraftstoffverbrauch aufwiesen. ^[45] Trotz einer erneuten Überarbeitung der Spezifikationen oder sogar eines vollständigen Konstruktionswettbewerbs unter den Flugzeugherstellern, General LeMay, der jetzt für Strategic zuständig ist Air Command bestand darauf, dass die Leistung aufgrund von Verzögerungen bei der Motorenentwicklung nicht beeinträchtigt werden sollte. ^[46][47] Bei einem letzten Versuch, die Reichweite zu erhöhen, schuf Boeing die größere 464-67, die besagt, dass die Reichweite in der Folge später noch erhöht werden könnte Änderungen ^[48] Nach mehreren direkten Eingriffen von LeMay ^[49] erhielt Boeing am 14. Februar einen Produktionsauftrag für dreizehn B-52As und siebzehn abnehmbare Aufklärungsbehälter uary 1951. ^[50] Die letzte große Konstruktionsänderung - auch auf Drängen von General LeMay - war der Wechsel von der B-47-Tandembestuhlung zu einem eher konventionellen Side-by-Side-Cockpit, was die Effektivität des Copiloten erhöhte und die Besatzung reduzierte Müdigkeit. ^[51] Beide Prototypen des XB-52 enthielten die ursprüngliche Tandem-Sitzanordnung mit einem gerahmten Bubble-Typ. ^[52]

Vorproduktion und Produktion [ edit ]

The YB- 52, der zweite XB-52, der mit mehr Betriebsausrüstung modifiziert wurde, flog zuerst am 15. April 1952 mit "Tex" Johnston als Pilot. ^[53][54] Bei Bodentests am 29. November 1951 versagte das pneumatische System des XB-52 bei vollem Druck Prüfung; Die resultierende Explosion beschädigte die Hinterkante des Flügels schwer und machte erhebliche Reparaturen erforderlich. Ein zweistündiger, 21-minütiger Testflug von Boeing Field, King County, in Seattle, Washington, nach Larson AFB wurde mit dem Boeing-Testpilot Johnston und dem Luftwaffenleutnant Guy M. Townsend durchgeführt. ^[55] Die XB-52 folgte 2. Oktober 1952. ^[56] Die gründliche Entwicklung, ^{[Note 3]} die 670 Tage im Windkanal und 130 Tage aerodynamische und aeroelastische Tests umfasste, zahlte sich bei reibungslosen Flugtests aus. Ermutigt erhöhte die Luftwaffe ihre Ordnung auf 282 B-52. ^[58]

Flugzeuglieferungen

Steuer Jahr	B-52-Modell								Jährlich Gesamt	Kumulativ Insgesamt
	A [59]	B [2]	C [60]	D [61]	E [62]	F [64]	G [64]	H [4]
1954	3								3								3 [1945650077] 3
1955		13							13	16
1956		35	5	1	1	1					1 19659077] 57
1957		2	30	92					124	181
1958	100	100	100	100 ] 10			187	368
1959						79	50		129		[1945650080] 1960 [19659108] 106		106	603
1961							37	20	57 57 19659080] 1962								68	68	728
1963 [1965977]	14 14 14 19659 080] Insgesamt	3	50	35		170 . 19659077] 100	89	193	102	[19456500] 19659077] 742

Nur drei der 13 bestellten B-52As wurden gebaut. ^[65] Alle wurden an Boeing zurückgegeben und in ihrem Testprogramm verwendet. ^[59] Am 9. Juni 1952 wurde der Vertrag vom Februar 1951 abgeschlossen aktualisiert, um das Flugzeug unter neuen Spezifikationen zu bestellen. Die letzten 10, das erste Flugzeug, das in den aktiven Dienst aufgenommen wurde, wurden als B-52B fertiggestellt. ^[59] Bei der Einführungszeremonie am 18. März 1954 sagte der Generalstabschef der Air Force, General Nathan Twining:

Das lange Gewehr war die große Waffe seiner Zeit. ... heute ist diese B-52 das lange Gewehr des Luftzeitalters. ^[66][67]

Auf die B-52B folgten progressiv verbesserte Bomber- und Aufklärungsvarianten, die in der B-52G und dem Turbofan B-52H gipfelten. Um eine schnelle Lieferung zu ermöglichen, wurden Produktionslinien sowohl im Hauptwerk in Seattle als auch im Boeing-Werk in Wichita errichtet. Mehr als 5.000 Unternehmen waren an der massiven Produktion beteiligt, 41% der Flugzeugzelle wurden von Subunternehmern gebaut. ^[68] Die Prototypen und alle B-52A-, B- und C-Modelle (90 Flugzeuge) ^[69] wurden in Seattle gebaut. Der Test von in Seattle gebauten Flugzeugen verursachte Probleme aufgrund von Fluglärm, was zur Einrichtung von Ausgangssperren für Triebwerkstests führte. Die Flugzeuge wurden auf ihren Jungfernflügen zur Larson Air Force Base in der Nähe von Moses Lake, wo sie vollständig getestet wurden, 150 Meilen (240 km) nach Osten gefahren. ^[70]

Als die Produktion der B-47 eingestellt wurde, wurde die Wichita-Fabrik eingestellt für die Produktion von B-52D, wobei Seattle für 101 D-Modelle und Wichita 69 verantwortlich war. ^[71] Beide Werke bauten die B-52E weiter mit 42 in Seattle und 58 in Wichita, ^[72] und der B-52F ( 44 von Seattle und 45 von Wichita. ^[73] Für die B-52G wurde 1957 entschieden, die gesamte Produktion nach Wichita zu verlagern, wodurch Seattle für andere Aufgaben (insbesondere die Produktion von Flugzeugen) freigestellt wurde. ^[74][75] Produktion endete 1962 mit der B-52H mit 742 gebauten Flugzeugen sowie den beiden ursprünglichen Prototypen. ^[76]

Upgrades [ edit

Eine vorgeschlagene Variante der B-52H war der EB-52H, der aus 16 modifizierten und erweiterten B-52H-Flugzeugzellen mit zusätzlichen elektronischen Störfunktionen bestanden hätte. ^[77][78] This Die Variante hätte die durch die USAF in der Luft zerstörte Störungsfähigkeit wiederhergestellt, die sie beim Rückzug des EF-111 Raven verloren hatte. Das Programm wurde 2005 eingestellt, nachdem die Mittel für den Abstandsstörer abgelegt wurden. Das Programm wurde 2007 wiederbelebt und Anfang 2009 erneut gekürzt. ^[79]

Im Juli 2013 begann die Luftwaffe mit einer flottenweiten technischen Aufrüstung ihrer B-52-Bomber namens Combat Network Communications Technology (CONECT) zur Modernisierung der Elektronik und Kommunikation Technologie, Computer und Avionik auf dem Flugdeck. CONECT-Upgrades umfassen Software und Hardware wie neue Computerserver, Modems, Funkgeräte, Datenverbindungen, Empfänger und digitale Workstations für die Crew. Ein Update ist das Softwareprogramm ARC-210 Warrior, ein Programmiergerät, das in der Lage ist, Sprache, Daten und Informationen während des Fluges zwischen dem B-52s und den Bodenkommandozentralen zu übertragen, wodurch das Übertragen und Empfangen von Daten mit Aktualisierung ermöglicht wird Intelligenz-, Mapping- und Targeting-Informationen; Vorherige Zieländerungen während des Fluges mussten nach unten kopiert werden. Mit dem ARC-210 können Daten von Maschine zu Maschine übertragen werden. Dies ist nützlich für Langzeitmissionen, bei denen sich Ziele möglicherweise vor dem Eintreffen der B-52 bewegt haben. Das Flugzeug kann Informationen über Link-16 empfangen. CONECT-Upgrades werden insgesamt 1,1 Milliarden US-Dollar kosten und mehrere Jahre dauern. Die Finanzierung ist für 30 B-52 gesichert. Die Luftwaffe hofft auf 10 CONECT-Upgrades pro Jahr, die Rate steht jedoch noch nicht fest. ^[80]

Zu den Upgrades für Waffen zählt das 1760 Internal Weapons Bay Upgrade (IWBU), das eine Steigerung der Waffennutzlast um 66 Prozent über eine digitale Schnittstelle ( MIL-STD-1760) und Rotationswerfer. Es wird erwartet, dass die IWBU rund 313 Millionen US-Dollar kostet. ^[80] Die IWBU von 1760 wird es der B-52 ermöglichen, acht ^[81] JDAM 2000-lb-Bomben, AGM-158B-JASSM-ER-Marschflugkörper und die ADM-160C-MALD-J-Raketenraketen zu befördern im Inneren. Alle 1760 IWBUs sollten bis Oktober 2017 einsatzbereit sein. Zwei Bomber haben die Möglichkeit, anstelle der 36, die drei B-52 tragen können, 40 Waffen zu tragen. ^[82] Die 1760 IWBU ermöglicht den Einsatz von präzisionsgelenkten Raketen oder Bomben in der Waffenbucht; Bisherige Flugzeuge trugen diese Munition extern an Flügelhärtepunkten. Dies erhöht die Anzahl der geführten Waffen, die eine B-52 tragen kann, und verringert die Notwendigkeit, dass geführte Bomben auf den Flügeln getragen werden. In der ersten Phase kann eine B-52 vierundzwanzig 500-Pfund-geführte JDAM-Bomben oder zwanzig 2.000-Pfund-JDAMs transportieren, und in späteren Phasen ist die Raketenfamilie JASSM und MALD untergebracht. ^[83] Zusätzlich zu den weiteren intelligenten Bomben Wenn Sie sie intern von den Flügeln aus bewegen, verringert sich der Luftwiderstand und der Kraftstoffverbrauch wird um 15 Prozent gesenkt. ^[84]

Wissenschaftler der Luftwaffe arbeiten an der Bewaffnung der B-52 mit defensiven Laserwaffen, die angreifende Luft-Luft- oder Oberflächen-Luft-Luftfeuchtigkeit Luftabwehrraketen. ^[85]

Überblick [ edit ]

Die B-52 hatte viele technologische Ähnlichkeiten mit dem vorherigen strategischen Bomber Boeing B-47 Stratojet. Die beiden Flugzeuge verwendeten die gleiche Grundkonstruktion, wie etwa Sweep-Wings und Pod-Jet-Triebwerke ^[86] und die Kabine umfasste die Mannschaftsauswurfsysteme. ^[87] Bei der B-52D wurden die Piloten und die elektronischen Gegenmaßnahmen (EDM) nach oben ausgeworfen , während die Crew des unteren Decks nach unten ausgeworfen wurde; Bis zur B-52G musste der Kanonier die Heckpistole abwerfen, um aus der Kabine auszusteigen. ^[88]

B-52H (AF Ser. No. Nr. 61-0023), die damals als Testfeld zur Untersuchung von Strukturversagen konfiguriert war und nach dem Abscheren des vertikalen Stabilisators am 10. Januar 1964 immer noch flog. Das Flugzeug landete sicher. ^[89]

Die strukturelle Ermüdung wurde um mindestens beschleunigt ein Faktor acht in einem Flugprofil in geringer Höhe gegenüber dem Höhenflug, das kostspielige Reparaturen erfordert, um die Lebensdauer zu verlängern. In den frühen 1960er Jahren wurde das dreiphasige Programm High Stress gegen strukturelle Ermüdung gestartet, bei dem Flugzeuge mit 2.000 Flugstunden angemeldet wurden. ^[90][91] Es wurden Folgeprogramme durchgeführt, wie z. B. eine Lebensdauer von 2.000 Stunden 1966/1968 Erweiterung der Auswahl an Flugzeugzellen und die umfangreiche Fertigstellung des Pacer Plank von 19459010, die 1977 abgeschlossen wurde. ^[75][92] Der nasse Flügel der G- und H-Modelle war noch anfälliger für Ermüdung und wurde um 60% mehr beansprucht während des Fluges als der alte Flügel. Die Flügel wurden von 1964 unter ECP 1050 modifiziert. ^[93] 1966 folgte eine Rumpfhaut und ein Longitudinalon-Ersatz ( ECP 1185 ) und die B-52 Programm zur Stabilitätssteigerung und Flugkontrolle ( ECP 1195 ) im Jahr 1967. ^[93] Kraftstofflecks aufgrund von sich verschlechternden Marman-Klemmen plagten weiterhin alle Varianten der B-52. Zu diesem Zweck wurden die Flugzeuge Blue Band (1957), Hard Shell (1958) und schließlich QuickClip (1958) unterworfen. Letztere bauten Sicherheitsgurte ein, die einen katastrophalen Kraftstoffverlust bei einem Versagen der Klemme verhinderten. ^[94] Die Obergrenze der B-52 ist offiziell mit 50.000 Fuß angegeben, die Betriebserfahrung zeigt jedoch, dass dies bei voller Ladung mit Bomben schwierig ist. Einer Quelle zufolge: „Die optimale Höhe für eine Kampfmission lag bei etwa 43.000 Fuß, da eine Überschreitung dieser Höhe die Reichweite des Flugzeugs rapide verschlechtern würde.“ ^[95]

Im September 2006 wurde die B-52 eines der ersten US-Militärflugzeuge mit alternativem Treibstoff fliegen. Es startete von Edwards Air Force Base mit einer 50/50-Mischung aus synthetischem Kraftstoff nach Fischer-Tropsch-Verfahren (FT) und herkömmlichem Düsenkraftstoff JP-8, der in zwei der acht Motoren brannte. ^[96] Am 15. Dezember 2006 a B-52 startete von Edwards mit dem synthetischen Treibstoff für alle acht Triebwerke. Zum ersten Mal wurde ein Flugzeug der Luftwaffe vollständig mit der Mischung angetrieben. Der siebenstündige Flug galt als Erfolg. ^[96] Dieses Programm ist Teil der Initiative für gesicherte Treibstoffe des US-Verteidigungsministeriums, die darauf abzielt, den Rohölverbrauch zu senken und bis zur Hälfte des Flugtreibstoffs aus alternativen Quellen zu beziehen. ^[96] On 8. August 2007, Luftwaffenminister Michael Wynne bescheinigte der B-52H die uneingeschränkte Zulassung der FT-Mischung. ^[97]

Flugkontrollen [ edit ]

Wegen der Mission der B-52 Parameter wären nur mäßige Manöver erforderlich, ohne dass der Spin wieder hergestellt werden müsste. ^[98] Das Flugzeug verfügt über ein relativ kleines, schmales Akkordruder, was ihm eine eingeschränkte Giersteuerungsbefugnis verleiht. Ursprünglich sollte ein vollständig beweglicher vertikaler Stabilisator verwendet werden, der aber wegen Zweifel an der Zuverlässigkeit der hydraulischen Stellantriebe aufgegeben wurde. ^[98] Da das Flugzeug über acht Triebwerke verfügt, wäre der asymmetrische Schub aufgrund des Ausfalls eines Triebwerks im Flug minimal und korrigierbar das schmale Ruder. Zur Unterstützung von Starts und Landungen mit Seitenwind kann das Hauptfahrwerk vom Neutralpunkt aus zu beiden Seiten geschwenkt werden. ^[99]
Dieses gierverstellbare Seitenwindfahrwerk wird von der Besatzung entsprechend den am Boden gemachten Windbeobachtungen voreingestellt.

Der Aufzug ist auch sehr schmal im Akkord wie das Ruder, und die B-52 leidet unter einer eingeschränkten Aufzugskontrollberechtigung. Für langfristige Trimm- und Fluggeschwindigkeitsänderungen verwendet das Flugzeug ein sich vollständig bewegendes Heck, wobei der Aufzug für kleine Anpassungen innerhalb einer Stabilisatoreinstellung verwendet wird. Der Stabilisator ist in 13 Stufen (neun aufwärts, vier abwärts) einstellbar und ist aufgrund von großen Neigungsänderungen, die durch die Klappenanwendung hervorgerufen werden, für Operationen während des Starts und der Landung von entscheidender Bedeutung. ^[100]

B- Die 52er vor den G-Modellen hatten sehr kleine Querruder mit einer kurzen Spannweite, die ungefähr ihrem Akkord entsprach. Diese "Fühler-Querruder" wurden verwendet, um Rückkopplungskräfte auf das Steuerjoch des Piloten auszuüben und die Rollachsen bei heiklen Manövern, wie beispielsweise beim Auftanken aus der Luft, fein einzustellen. ^[98] Durch das Verdrehen des dünnen Hauptflügels würden herkömmliche Querruder mit Außenbordklappen verlieren Behörde und konnte daher nicht verwendet werden. Mit anderen Worten würde die Aktivierung des Querruders dazu führen, dass sich der Flügel verdreht, was die Rollsteuerung untergräbt. Sechs Spoilerons auf jedem Flügel sind für die Mehrheit der Rollkontrolle verantwortlich. Die späten B-52G-Modelle eliminierten die Querruder insgesamt und fügten jedem Flügel einen zusätzlichen Spoiler hinzu. ^[98] Die B-52G- und H-Modelle waren zum Teil wegen des Fehlens von Querrudern anfälliger für holländische Rollen. ^[100]

Avionics ]

Ein Blick auf das untere Deck der B-52, auch Schlachtstation genannt

. Laufende Probleme mit Avioniksystemen wurden im Programm Jolly Well angesprochen. wurde 1964 fertiggestellt, wodurch die Komponenten des AN / ASQ-38-Navigationsrechners und des Geländecomputers verbessert wurden. Das MADREC-Upgrade (Malfunction Detection and Recording), das bis 1965 in die meisten Flugzeuge eingebaut wurde, konnte Fehler in Avionik- und Waffencomputersystemen erkennen und war für die Überwachung der Hound Dog-Raketen unerlässlich. Die elektronische Gegenmaßnahmenfähigkeit der B-52 wurde mit Rivet Rambler (1971) und Rivet Ace (19459010) (1973). ^[61]

verbessert Das AN / ASQ-151 Electro-Optical Viewing System (EVS), das aus einem Low-Light-Level-TV (LLLTV) und einem nach vorne schauenden Infrarotsystem (FLIR) besteht, befindet sich in Blistern unter der Nase des B-52G und Hs zwischen 1972 und 1976. ^[102] Die Navigationsfähigkeiten der B-52 wurden später in den 80er Jahren durch GPS ergänzt. ^[103] Die IBM AP-101, die auch beim Rockwell B-1-Lancer-Bomber verwendet wurde Das Space Shuttle war der Hauptcomputer der B-52. ^[104]

Im Jahr 2007 wurde die Zieltasche LITENING installiert, die die Wirksamkeit des Flugzeugs beim Angriff von Bodenzielen mit einer Vielzahl von Zielgeräten erhöhte Abstandswaffen mit Laserführung, einem hochauflösenden, vorwärts gerichteten Infrarotsensor (FLIR) und einer CCD-Kamera d, um ein Zielbild zu erhalten. ^[105] LITENING-Pods wurden an eine Vielzahl anderer US-amerikanischer Flugzeuge montiert, beispielsweise an die McDonnell Douglas F / A-18 Hornet, die General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon und die McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II. ^[106]

Bewaffnung [ edit ]

Die Fähigkeit, bis zu 20 AGM-69-SRAM-Atomraketen zu tragen, wurde ab 1971 in die G- und H-Modelle aufgenommen. ^[107] Um die Offensivfähigkeiten weiter zu verbessern, wurden in der Luft abgefeuerte Marschflugkörper (ALCMs) eingebaut. ^[108] Nach dem Test der von Air Force unterstützten Boeing AGM-86 und der von der Generalstimme unterstützten General Dynamics AGM-109 Tomahawk, der AGM-86B wurde von der B-52 (und letztendlich vom B-1-Lancer) für den Betrieb ausgewählt. ^[109] Insgesamt wurden 194 B-52Gs und Hs für AGM-86-Flugzeuge modifiziert, die 12 Raketen an Flügelspylonen mit 82 B beförderten -52Hs wurde weiter modifiziert, um weitere acht Raketen auf einem im Bombenschacht montierten Drehwerfer zu transportieren. Um den Anforderungen des SALT-II-Vertrags zu genügen, dass flugtaugliche Flugzeuge von Aufklärungssatelliten leicht identifizierbar sind, wurden die mit B-52G ausgestatteten B-52G mit einer markanten Flügelwurzelverkleidung modifiziert. Da alle B-52H als modifiziert angenommen wurden, war keine visuelle Modifikation dieser Flugzeuge erforderlich. ^[110] 1990 wurde der stealthy AGM-129 ACM-Marschflugkörper in Dienst gestellt; Obwohl die AGM-86 ersetzt werden sollte, führten hohe Kosten und das Ende des Kalten Krieges dazu, dass nur 450 produziert wurden. Im Gegensatz zur AGM-86 wurde keine konventionelle (nicht nukleare) Version gebaut. ^[111] Die B-52 sollte modifiziert werden, um die AGM-137-TSSAM-Waffe von Northrop Grumman einzusetzen; Die Rakete wurde jedoch aufgrund von Entwicklungskosten abgesagt. ^[112]

Die nicht als Cruise Missile Carrier umgebauten B-52G wurden einer Reihe von Änderungen unterzogen, um die konventionellen Bombenanschläge zu verbessern. Sie wurden mit einem neuen integrierten konventionellen Lagerverwaltungssystem (ICSMS) und neuen Pylonen unter den Flügeln ausgestattet, die größere Bomben oder andere Läden aufnehmen konnten als die äußeren Pylone. Dreißig B-52G wurden weiter modifiziert, um jeweils bis zu 12 AGM-84 Harpoon-Schiffsabwehrraketen zu befördern, während 12 B-52G für die Ablösung der Luft-Boden-Rakete AGM-142 Have Nap vorgesehen waren. ^[113] Als der B-52G 1994 in den Ruhestand ging, wurde ein Dringlichkeitsprogramm eingeführt, um eine vorläufige Harpoon- und Have Nap-Fähigkeit wiederherzustellen. ^{[Note 4]} Die vier Flugzeuge wurden geändert, um Harpoon zu transportieren, und vier, um Have Nap unter dem [RapidEight zu tragen. ^{Programm. [116]}

Das CEM-Programm (Conventional Enhancement Modification) verleiht der B-52H eine umfangreichere konventionelle Waffenkapazität , Harpoon and Have Nap und die Fähigkeit, Waffen der neuen Generation zu transportieren, einschließlich der gelenkten Bomben mit direktem Direktangriff und Wind korrigiertem Munitionsdispenser, der Gleitbombe AGM-154 und der JASM-Rakete AGM-158. Das CEM-Programm führte auch neue Funkgeräte ein, integrierte das Global Positioning System in das Navigationssystem des Flugzeugs und ersetzte die FLIR mit der Nase unter der Nase durch eine modernere Einheit. Siebenundvierzig B-52Hs wurden 1996 im Rahmen des CEM-Programms modifiziert, Ende 1999 waren es 19 weitere. ^{[117] [118]}

Bis etwa 2010, USA Strategic Command hat die Zuordnung von B61- und B83-Nuklearschwere-Bomben auf B-52 eingestellt und später nur noch die B-2 aufgeführt, die mit der Abgabe strategischer Atombomben in Budgetanträgen beauftragt wurde. Nukleare Schwerkraftbomben wurden aus den Fähigkeiten der B-52 entfernt, weil sie nicht mehr als überlebensfähig angesehen wird, um in die moderne Luftabwehr einzudringen, sondern sich auf nukleare Marschflugkörper stützt und sich auf den Ausbau ihrer konventionellen Streikrolle konzentriert. 19659182] Boeing wird ab 2016 die internen Drehwerfer auf die Schnittstelle MIL-STD-1760 aufrüsten, um die interne Beförderung intelligenter Bomben zu ermöglichen, die bisher nur auf den Flügeln befördert werden konnten. ^[120]

Während der B-1 Lancer im Vergleich zu den 70.000 Nutzlasten der B-52 technisch gesehen eine größere theoretische Nutzlast von 75.000 Pfund aufweist, sind die Flugzeuge selten in der Lage, ihre vollen Ladungen zu tragen, wobei die meisten der B-52 eine volle Last haben AGM-86Bs insgesamt 62.660 lbs. Die B-1 verfügt über den internen Waffenraum, um mehr GBU-31-JDAMs und JASSMs zu transportieren, aber die B-52, die mit dem herkömmlichen Rotary Launcher aufgerüstet wurde, kann mehr in anderen JDAM-Varianten transportieren. ^[121]

[ edi t ]

USAF B-52H-Stratofortress-Motoren

Die acht Motoren der B-52 sind in Schoten gepaart und an vier Pylonen unter und vor der Flügelvorderkante aufgehängt. Die sorgfältige Anordnung der Pylone ermöglichte ihnen auch, als Flügelzäune zu arbeiten und den Beginn des Stalls zu verzögern. The first two prototypes, XB-52 and YB-52, were both powered by experimental Pratt & Whitney YJ57-P-3 turbojet engines of 8,700 lbf (38.70 kN) of static thrust each.^[100]

The B-52A models were equipped with Pratt & Whitney J57-P-1W turbojets, providing a dry thrust of 10,000 lbf (44.48 kN) which could be increased for short periods to 11,000 lbf (48.93 kN) with water injection. The water was carried in a 360-gallon tank in the rear fuselage.^[122]

B-52B, C, D and E models were equipped with Pratt & Whitney J57-P-29W, J57-P-29WA, or J57-P-19W series engines all rated at 10,500 lbf (46.71 kN). The B-52F and G models were powered by Pratt & Whitney J57-P-43WB turbojets, each rated at 13,750 lbf (61.16 kN) static thrust with water injection.^[122]

On May 9, 1961, B-52H started being delivered to the Air Force with cleaner burning and quieter Pratt & Whitney TF33-P-3 turbofans with a maximum thrust of 17,100 lbf (76.06 kN).^[100]

Engine retrofit[edit]

For a study for the U.S. Air Force in the mid-1970s, Boeing investigated replacing the engines, changing to a new wing, and other improvements to upgrade B-52G/H aircraft as an alternative to the B-1A, then in development.^[123]

In 1982, Pratt & Whitney studied retrofitting B-52s with four Pratt & Whitney PW2000 (F117) engines, but this was not done, since all B-52s were to be replaced by B-1s and B-2s by the late 1990s. In 1996 Rolls-Royce and Boeing jointly proposed to fit B-52s with four leased Rolls-Royce RB211-535 engines, but this plan failed because of Air Force resistance to leasing combat assets and a negative Air Force economic analysis which was later disputed as flawed.^[124]

This would involve replacing the eight Pratt & Whitney TF33 engines (total thrust 8 × 17,000 lb) with four RB211 engines (total thrust 4 × 37,400 lb), which would increase range and reduce fuel consumption, at a cost of approximately US$2.56 billion for the whole fleet (71 aircraft at $36 million each). However, an Air Force analysis in 1997 concluded that Boeing's estimated savings of US$4.7 billion would not be realized and that re-engining would instead cost US$1.3 billion over keeping the existing engines, citing significant up-front procurement and re-tooling expenditure, as well as the RB211's higher maintenance cost.^[125]

The Air Force's 1997 rejection of re-engining was subsequently disputed in a Defense Science Board (DSB) report in 2003. The DSB urged the Air Force to re-engine the aircraft without delay,^[126] saying doing so would not only create significant cost savings, but reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase aircraft range and endurance; these conclusions were in line with the conclusions of a separate Congress-funded study conducted in 2003. Criticizing the Air Force cost analysis, the DSB found that among other things, the Air Force failed to account for the cost of aerial refueling; the DSB estimated that refueling in the air cost $17.50 per gallon, whereas the Air Force had failed to account for the cost of fuel delivery and so had only priced fuel at $1.20 per gallon.^[127]

As the TF33 overhaul cost tripled in a decade, a joint Boeing/USAF study in 2003 recommended a $4–4.7 billion re-engining, allowing $11–15 billion cost savings while increasing B-52H combat range by 22% and tripling loiter time on station, proposing a competition between the RB211, PW2000, and eight CFM56 engines financed by an Energy Savings Performance Contract.^[128]

In 2014, the U.S. Air Force was reviewing industry studies of engine replacement. As of 2014^[update]the engine retrofit has not been approved. In late 2014, it was reported that the DOD and unnamed private companies were exploring a leasing program where private lease companies would purchase new engines and lease them to the USAF. DOD costs would be determined by depreciation and actual usage with no up-front lump payments.^[124] In 2018, the USAF proposed another plan to re-engine the B-52, known as the Commercial Engine Re-engining Program (CERP). A request for proposals is planned for mid-2019, with service entry by 2024. Possible contender engines to replace the TF-33 including the General Electric TF34, the General Electric Passport, the Pratt & Whitney PW815 and the Rolls-Royce BR725.^[129][130]

Costs[edit]

Costs per aircraft. US dollars

	X/YB-52	B-52A	B-52B	B-52C	B-52D	B-52E	B-52F	B-52G	B-52H
Unit R&D cost	100 million (1955) 935 million (current)
Airframe		26.433 M (1955)	11.328 M (1955)	5.359 M (1955)	4.654 M (1955)	3.700 M (1955)	3.772 M (1955)	5.352 M (1955)	6.076 M (1955)
Engines		2.848 M (1955)	2.547 M (1955)	1.513 M (1955)	1.291 M (1955)	1.257 M (1955)	1.787 M (1955)	1.428 M (1955)	1.640 M (1955)
Electronics		50,761 (1955)	61,198 (1955)	71,397 (1955)	68,613 (1955)	54,933 (1955)	60,111 (1955)	66,374 (1955)	61,020 (1955)
Armament and ordnance		57,067 (1955) 533,736 (current)	494 K (1955) 4.62 M (current)	304 K (1955) 2.85 M (current)	566 K (1955) 5.296 M (current)	936 K (1955) 8.76 M (current)	866 K (1955) 8.10 M (current)	847 K (1955) 7.92 M (current)	1.508 M (1955) 14.1 M (current)
Flyaway cost		28.38 M (1955) 265.4 M (current)	14.43 M (1955) 135.0 M (current)	7.24 M (1955) 67.7 M (current)	6.58 M (1955) 61.5 M (current)	5.94 M (1955) 55.6 M (current)	6.48 M (1955) 61.5 M (current)	7.69 M (1955) 71.9 M (current)	9.29 M (1955) 86.9 M (current)
Maintenance cost per flying hour						925 (1955) 8,651 (current)	1,025 (1955) 9,587 (current)	1,025 (1955) 9,587 (current)	1,182 (1955) 11,055 (current)
Note: The original costs were in approximate 1955 United States dollars.[131] Figures in tables noted with current have been adjusted for inflation to the current calendar year.[33]

Operational history[edit]

Introduction[edit]

Although the B-52A was the first production variant, these aircraft were used only in testing. The first operational version was the B-52B that had been developed in parallel with the prototypes since 1951. First flying in December 1954, B-52B, AF Serial Number 52-8711, entered operational service with 93rd Heavy Bombardment Wing (93rd BW) at Castle Air Force Base, California, on 29 June 1955. The wing became operational on 12 March 1956. The training for B-52 crews consisted of five weeks of ground school and four weeks of flying, accumulating 35 to 50 hours in the air. The new B-52Bs replaced operational B-36s on a one-to-one basis.^[132]

Early operations were problematic;^[133] in addition to supply problems, there were also technical issues.^[134] Ramps and taxiways deteriorated under the aircraft's weight, the fuel system was prone to leaks and icing,^[135] and bombing and fire control computers were unreliable.^[134] The split level cockpit presented a temperature control problem – the pilots' cockpit was heated by sunlight while the observer and the navigator on the bottom deck sat on the ice-cold floor. Thus, a comfortable temperature setting for the pilots caused the other crew members to freeze, while a comfortable temperature for the bottom crew caused the pilots to overheat.^[136] The J57 engines proved unreliable. Alternator failure caused the first fatal B-52 crash in February 1956;^[137] as a result, the fleet was briefly grounded. In July, fuel and hydraulic issues grounded the B-52s again. In response to maintenance issues, the air force set up "Sky Speed" teams of 50 contractors at each B-52 base to perform maintenance and routine checkups, taking an average of one week per aircraft.^[138]

Three B-52Bs of the 93rd Bomb Wing prepare to depart March AFB for Castle AFB, California, after their record-setting round-the-world flight in 1957.

On 21 May 1956, a B-52B (52-0013) dropped a Mk-15 nuclear bomb over the Bikini Atoll in a test code-named Cherokee. It was the first air-dropped thermonuclear weapon.^[139] This aircraft now is on display at the National Museum of Nuclear Science and History in Albuquerque, NM. From 24 to 25 November 1956, four B-52Bs of the 93rd BW and four B-52Cs of the 42nd BW flew nonstop around the perimeter of North America in Operation Quick Kickwhich covered 15,530 miles (13,500 nmi, 25,000 km) in 31 hours, 30 minutes. SAC noted the flight time could have been reduced by 5 to 6 hours had the four inflight refuelings been done by fast jet-powered tanker aircraft rather than propeller-driven Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighters.^[140] In a demonstration of the B-52's global reach, from 16 to 18 January 1957, three B-52Bs made a non-stop flight around the world during Operation Power Fliteduring which 24,325 miles (21,145 nmi, 39,165 km) was covered in 45 hours 19 minutes (536.8 smph) with several in-flight refuelings by KC-97s.^{[141][Note 5]}

The B-52 set many records over the next few years. On 26 September 1958, a B-52D set a world speed record of 560.705 miles per hour (487 kn, 902 km/h) over a 10,000 kilometers (5,400 nmi, 6,210 mi) closed circuit without a payload. The same day, another B-52D established a world speed record of 597.675 miles per hour (519 kn, 962 km/h) over a 5,000 kilometer (2,700 nmi, 3,105 mi) closed circuit without a payload.^[92] On 14 December 1960, a B-52G set a world distance record by flying unrefueled for 10,078.84 miles (8,762 nmi, 16,227 km); the flight lasted 19 hours 44 minutes (510.75 mph).^[142] From 10 to 11 January 1962, a B-52H (60-0040) set a world distance record by flying unrefueled, surpassing the prior B-52 record set two years earlier, from Kadena Air Base, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, to Torrejón Air Base, Spain, which covered 12,532.28 miles (10,895 nmi, 20,177 km).^[4][143] The flight passed over Seattle, Fort Worth and the Azores.

Cold War[edit]

When the B-52 entered into service, the Strategic Air Command (SAC) intended to use it to deter and counteract the vast and modernizing Soviet military. As the Soviet Union increased its nuclear capabilities, destroying or "countering" the forces that would deliver nuclear strikes (bombers, missiles, etc.) became of great strategic importance.^[144] The Eisenhower administration endorsed this switch in focus; the President in 1954 expressing a preference for military targets over civilian ones, a principle reinforced in the Single Integrated Operation Plan (SIOP), a plan of action in the case of nuclear war breaking out.^[145]

Throughout the Cold War, B-52s and other US strategic bombers performed airborne alert patrols under code names such as Head Start, Chrome Dome, Hard Head, Round Robin and Giant Lance. Bombers loitered at high altitude near the borders of the Soviet Union to provide rapid first strike or retaliation capability in case of nuclear war.^[146] These airborne patrols formed one component of the US's nuclear deterrent, which would act to prevent the breakout of a large-scale war between the US and the Soviet Union under the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction.^[147]

Due to the late 1950s-era threat of surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) that could threaten high-altitude aircraft,^[148][149] seen in practice in the 1960 U-2 incident,^[150] the intended use of B-52 was changed to serve as a low-level penetration bomber during a foreseen attack upon the Soviet Union, as terrain masking provided an effective method of avoiding radar and thus the threat of the SAMs.^[151] Although never intended for the low level role, the B-52's flexibility allowed it to outlast several intended successors as the nature of aerial warfare changed. The B-52's large airframe enabled the addition of multiple design improvements, new equipment, and other adaptations over its service life.^[101]

In November 1959, to improve the aircraft's combat capabilities in the changing strategic environment, SAC initiated the Big Four modification program (also known as Modification 1000) for all operational B-52s except early B models.^[90][151] The program was completed by 1963.^[152] The four modifications were the ability to launch AGM-28 Hound Dog standoff nuclear missiles and ADM-20 Quail decoys, an advanced electronic countermeasures (ECM) suite, and upgrades to perform the all-weather, low-altitude (below 500 feet or 150 m) interdiction mission in the face of advancing Soviet missile-based air defenses.^[152]

In the 1960s, there were concerns over the fleet's capable lifespan. Several projects beyond the B-52, the Convair B-58 Hustler and North American XB-70 Valkyrie, had either been aborted or proved disappointing in light of changing requirements, which left the older B-52 as the main bomber as opposed to the planned successive aircraft models.^[153][154] On 19 February 1965, General Curtis E. LeMay testified to Congress that the lack of a follow-up bomber project to the B-52 raised the danger that, "The B-52 is going to fall apart on us before we can get a replacement for it."^[155] Other aircraft, such as the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark, later complemented the B-52 in roles the aircraft was not as capable in, such as missions involving high-speed, low-level penetration dashes.^[156]

Vietnam War[edit]

Soviet specialists inspect the wreckage of the B-52 Stratofortress shot down near Hanoi on 23 December 1972

With the escalating situation in Southeast Asia, 28 B-52Fs were fitted with external racks for 24× 750 lb (340 kg) bombs under project South Bay in June 1964; an additional 46 aircraft received similar modifications under project Sun Bath.^[73] In March 1965, the United States commenced Operation Rolling Thunder. The first combat mission, Operation Arc Light, was flown by B-52Fs on 18 June 1965, when 30 bombers of the 9th and 441st Bombardment Squadrons struck a communist stronghold near the Bến Cát District in South Vietnam. The first wave of bombers arrived too early at a designated rendezvous point, and while maneuvering to maintain station, two B-52s collided, which resulted in the loss of both bombers and eight crewmen. The remaining bombers, minus one more that turned back due to mechanical problems, continued towards the target.^[157] Twenty-seven Stratofortresses dropped on a one-mile by two-mile target box from between 19,000 and 22,000 feet, a little more than 50% of the bombs fell within the target zone.^[158] The force returned to Andersen AFB except for one bomber with electrical problems that recovered to Clark AFB, the mission having lasted 13 hours. Post-strike assessment by teams of South Vietnamese troops with American advisors found evidence that the Viet Cong had departed from the area before the raid, and it was suspected that infiltration of the south's forces may have tipped off the north because of the South Vietnamese Army troops involved in the post-strike inspection.^[159]

B-52F dropping bombs on Vietnam

Beginning in late 1965, a number of B-52Ds underwent Big Belly modifications to increase bomb capacity for carpet bombings.^[160] While the external payload remained at 24 of 500 lb (227 kg) or 750 lb (340 kg) bombs, the internal capacity increased from 27 to 84 for 500 lb bombs, or from 27 to 42 for 750 lb bombs.^[161] The modification created enough capacity for a total of 60,000 lb (27,215 kg) using 108 bombs. Thus modified, B-52Ds could carry 22,000 lb (9,980 kg) more than B-52Fs.^[162] Designed to replace B-52Fs, modified B-52Ds entered combat in April 1966 flying from Andersen Air Force Base, Guam. Each bombing mission lasted 10 to 12 hours and included an aerial refueling by KC-135 Stratotankers.^[53] In spring 1967, B-52s began flying from U Tapao Airfield in Thailand so that refueling was not required.^[161]

The B-52s were restricted to bombing suspected Communist bases in relatively uninhabited sections, because their potency approached that of a tactical nuclear weapon. A formation of six B-52s, dropping their bombs from 30,000 feet, could "take out"... almost everything within a "box" approximately five-eighths mile wide by two miles long. Whenever Arc Light struck ... in the vicinity of Saigon, the city woke from the tremor..

Neil Sheehan, war correspondent, writing before the mass attacks on heavily populated cities including North Vietnam's capital.^[163]

On 22 November 1972, a B-52D (55-0110) from U-Tapao was hit by a surface-to-air missile (SAM) while on a raid over Vinh. The crew was forced to abandon the damaged aircraft over Thailand. This was the first B-52 destroyed by hostile fire.^[164]

The zenith of B-52 attacks in Vietnam was Operation Linebacker II (sometimes referred to as the Christmas Bombing), conducted from 18 to 29 December 1972, which consisted of waves of B-52s (mostly D models, but some Gs without jamming equipment and with a smaller bomb load). Over 12 days, B-52s flew 729 sorties^[165] and dropped 15,237 tons of bombs on Hanoi, Haiphong, and other targets.^[103][166] Originally 42 B-52s were committed to the war; however, numbers were frequently twice this figure.^[167] During Operation Linebacker IIfifteen B-52s were shot down, five were heavily damaged (one crashed in Laos), and five suffered medium damage. A total of 25 crew men were killed in these losses.^[168] North Vietnam claimed 34 B-52s were shot down.^[169]

During the war 31 B-52s were lost, including 10 shot down over North Vietnam.^[170] Of the losses, 17 were shot down in combat operations, one was a write-off because of combat damage, 11 crashed by accidents, 1 decommissioned because of combat damage, and 1 burned at the airport. However, some of the "crashed in flight accidents" crashed due to missiles or anti-aircraft guns. When landing at an airfield in Thailand one B-52 was heavily damaged by SAM, rolled off the runway and was then blown up by mines installed around the airfield to protect against guerrillas; only one crewman survived. Subsequently, this B-52 was counted as a "crashed in flight accidents".^{[171][verification needed]}

Air-to-air combat[edit]

Tail armament of a B-52G, Hill Aerospace Museum

During the Vietnam War, B-52D tail gunners were credited with shooting down two MiG-21 "Fishbeds". On 18 December 1972 tail gunner Staff Sergeant Samuel O. Turner's B-52 had just completed a bomb run for Operation Linebacker II and was turning away, when a North Vietnamese Air Force MiG-21 approached.^[172] The MiG and the B-52 locked onto each other. When the fighter drew within range, Turner fired his quad (four guns on one mounting) .50 caliber machine guns.^[173] The MiG exploded aft of the bomber,^[172] as confirmed by Master Sergeant Louis E. Le Blanc, the tail gunner in a nearby Stratofortress. Turner received a Silver Star for his actions.^[174] His B-52, tail number 56-0676, is preserved on display with air-to-air kill markings at Fairchild AFB in Spokane, Washington.^[172]

On 24 December 1972, during the same bombing campaign, the B-52 Diamond Lil was headed to bomb the Thái Nguyên railroad yards when tail gunner Airman First Class Albert E. Moore spotted a fast-approaching MiG-21.^[175] Moore opened fire with his quad .50 caliber guns at 4,000 yd (3,700 m), and kept shooting until the fighter disappeared from his scope. Technical Sergeant Clarence W. Chute, a tail gunner aboard another Stratofortress, watched the MiG catch fire and fall away;^[173] this was not confirmed by the VPAF.^[176]Diamond Lil is preserved on display at the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado.^[175] Moore was the last bomber gunner believed to have shot down an enemy aircraft with machine guns in aerial combat.^[173]

However, two B-52 tail gunner kills were not confirmed by VPAF, and they admitted to the loss of only three MiGs, all by F-4s.^[176] Vietnamese sources have attributed a third air-to-air victory to a B-52, a MiG-21 shot down on 16 April 1972.^[177] These victories make the B-52 the largest aircraft credited with air-to-air kills.^{[Note 6]} The last Arc Light mission without fighter escort took place on 15 August 1973, as U.S. military action in Southeast Asia was wound down.^[178]

Post Vietnam service[edit]

B-52Bs reached the end of their structural service life by the mid-1960s and all were retired by June 1966, followed by the last of the B-52Cs on 29 September 1971; except for NASA's B-52B "008" which was eventually retired in 2004 at Edwards AFB, California.^[179] Another of the remaining B Models, "005" is on display at the Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum in Denver, Colorado.^[180]

A few time-expired E models were retired in 1967 and 1968, but the bulk (82) were retired between May 1969 and March 1970. Most F models were also retired between 1967 and 1973, but 23 survived as trainers until late 1978. The fleet of D models served much longer; 80 D models were extensively overhauled under the Pacer Plank program during the mid-1970s.^[181] Skinning on the lower wing and fuselage was replaced, and various structural components were renewed. The fleet of D models stayed largely intact until late 1978, when 37 not already upgraded Ds were retired.^[182] The remainder were retired between 1982 and 1983.^[183]

The remaining G and H models were used for nuclear standby ("alert") duty as part of the United States' nuclear triad, the combination of nuclear-armed land-based missiles, submarine-based missiles and manned bombers. The B-1, intended to supplant the B-52, replaced only the older models and the supersonic FB-111.^[184] In 1991, B-52s ceased continuous 24-hour SAC alert duty.^[185]

After Vietnam the experience of operations in a hostile air defense environment was taken into account. Due to this B-52s were modernized with new weapons, equipment and both offensive and defensive avionics. This and the use of low-level tactics marked a major shift in the B-52's utility. The upgrades were:

• Supersonic short-range nuclear missiles: G and H models were modified to carry up to 20 SRAM missiles replacing existing gravity bombs. Eight SRAMs were carried internally on a special rotary launcher and 12 SRAMs were mounted on two wing pylons. With SRAM, the B-52s could strike heavily defended targets without entering the terminal defenses.


• New countermeasures: Phase VI ECM modification was the sixth major ECM program for the B-52. It improved the aircraft's self-protection capability in the dense Soviet air defense environment. The new equipment expanded signal coverage, improved threat warning, provided new countermeasures techniques and increased the quantity of expendables. The power requirements of Phase VI ECM also consumed most of the excess electrical capacity on the B-52G.


• B-52G and Hs were also modified with electro-optical viewing system (EVS) that made low-level operations and terrain avoidance much easier and safer. EVS system contained a low light level television (LLTV) camera and a forward looking infrared (FLIR) camera to display information needed for penetration at lower altitude.


• Subsonic-cruise unarmed decoy: SCUD resembled the B-52 on radar. As an active decoy, it carried ECM and other devices, and it had a range of several hundred miles. Although SCUD was never deployed operationally, the concept was developed, becoming known as the air launched cruise missile (ALCM-A).

These modifications increased weight by nearly 24,000 pounds, and decreased operational range by 8–11%. This was considered acceptable for the increase in capabilities.^{[186][verification needed]}

After the fall of the Soviet Union, all B-52Gs remaining in service were destroyed in accordance with the terms of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START). The Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center (AMRC) cut the 365 B-52s into pieces. Completion of the destruction task was verified by Russia via satellite and first-person inspection at the AMARC facility.^[187]

Gulf War and later[edit]

B-52 strikes were an important part of Operation Desert Storm. Starting on 16 January 1991, a flight of B-52Gs flew from Barksdale AFB, Louisiana, refueled in the air en route, struck targets in Iraq, and returned home – a journey of 35 hours and 14,000 miles (23,000 km) round trip. It set a record for longest-distance combat mission, breaking the record previously held by an RAF Vulcan bomber in 1982; however, this was achieved using forward refueling.^[189][190] Those seven B-52s flew the first combat sorties of Operation Desert Storm, firing 35 AGM-86C CALCMs standoff missiles and successfully destroying 85–95 percent of their targets.^[191] B-52Gs operating from the King Abdullah Air Base at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, RAF Fairford in the United Kingdom, Morón Air Base, Spain, and the island of Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory flew bombing missions over Iraq, initially at low altitude. After the first three nights, the B-52s moved to high-altitude missions instead, which reduced their effectiveness and psychological impact compared to the low altitude role initially played.^[192]

The conventional strikes were carried out by three bombers, which dropped up to 153 750-pound bombs over an area of 1.5 by 1 mi (2.4 by 1.6 km). The bombings demoralized the defending Iraqi troops, many of whom surrendered in the wake of the strikes.^[193] In 1999, the science and technology magazine Popular Mechanics described the B-52's role in the conflict: "The Buff's value was made clear during the Gulf War and Desert Fox. The B-52 turned out the lights in Baghdad."^[194] During Operation Desert Storm, B-52s flew about 1,620 sorties, and delivered 40% of the weapons dropped by coalition forces.^[195]

During the conflict, several claims of Iraqi air-to-air successes were made, including an Iraqi pilot, Khudai Hijab, who allegedly fired a Vympel R-27R missile from his MIG-29 and damaged a B-52G on the opening night of the Gulf War.^[196] However, the U.S. Air Force disputes this claim, stating the bomber was actually hit by friendly fire, an AGM-88 High-speed, Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM) that homed on the fire-control radar of the B-52's tail gun; the jet was subsequently renamed In HARM's Way.^[197] Shortly following this incident, General George Lee Butler announced that the gunner position on B-52 crews would be eliminated, and the gun turrets permanently deactivated, commencing on 1 October 1991.^[198]

Since the mid-1990s, the B-52H has been the only variant remaining in military service;^{[Note 7]} it is currently stationed at:

From 2 to 3 September 1996, two B-52H bombers conducted a mission as part of Operation Desert Strike. The B-52s struck Baghdad power stations and communications facilities with 13 AGM-86C conventional air-launched cruise missiles (CALCM) during a 34-hour, 16,000-mile round trip mission from Andersen AFB, Guam – the longest distance ever flown for a combat mission.^[200]

On 24 March 1999, when Operation Allied Force began, B-52 bombers bombarded Serb targets throughout the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, including during the Battle of Kosare.^[201]

The B-52 contributed to Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001 (Afghanistan/Southwest Asia), providing the ability to loiter high above the battlefield and provide Close Air Support (CAS) through the use of precision guided munitions, a mission which previously would have been restricted to fighter and ground attack aircraft.^[202] In late 2001, ten B-52s dropped a third of the bomb tonnage in Afghanistan.^[203] B-52s also played a role in Operation Iraqi Freedom, which commenced on 20 March 2003 (Iraq/Southwest Asia). On the night of 21 March 2003, B-52Hs launched at least one hundred AGM-86C CALCMs at targets within Iraq.^[204]

B-52 and maritime operations[edit]

The B-52 can be highly effective for ocean surveillance, and can assist the Navy in anti-ship and mine-laying operations. For example, a pair of B-52s, in two hours, can monitor 140,000 square miles (364,000 square kilometers) of ocean surface. During 2018 Baltops exercise B-52s have conducted mine-laying missions off the coasts of Sweden, simulating a counter-amphibious invasion mission in the Baltic.^[205][206]

All this started in the 1970s, when US Navy worried that combined attack from Soviet bombers, submarines and warships could overwhelm its defenses and sink its aircraft carriers. After Falklands war US planners feared the damage that could be created by 200-mile-range missiles carried by Backfire bombers and 250-mile-range missiles carried by Soviet surface ships. New US Navy's maritime strategy in early 1980s called for aggressive use of carriers and surface action groups against the Soviet navy. To help protect the carrier battle groups, some B-52G were modified to fire Harpoon anti-ship missiles. These bombers were based at Guam and Maine from later 1970s in order to support both the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. In case of war B-52s would coordinate with tanker support and surveillance by AWACS and Navy AWACS planes. B-52Gs could strike Soviet navy targets on the flanks of the US carrier battle groups, leaving them free to concentrate on offensive strikes against Soviet surface combatants. Mines laid down by B-52s could establish mine fields in significant enemy choke points (mainly Kurile islands and GIUK). These minefields would force the Soviet fleet to disperse, making individual ships more vulnerable to Harpoon attacks.^[207][208]

From the 1980s B-52Hs were modified to use Harpoons in addition to a wide range of cruise missiles, laser- and satellite-guided bombs and unguided munitions. B-52 bomber crews honed sea-skimming flight profiles that should allow them to penetrate stiff enemy defenses and attack Soviet ships.^{[209][210][211]}

Recent expansion and modernization of China's navy has caused B-52s to dust off abilities for finding and attacking ships. Quite recently B-52 fleet has been certified to use Quickstrike family of naval mines using JDAM-ER guided wing kits. This weapon will give the ability to lay down minefields over wide areas, in a single pass, with extreme accuracy, and all while standing-off at over 40 miles away. Besides this, with a view to enhance B-52 maritime patrol and strike performance, an AN/ASQ-236 Dragon's Eye underwing pod, has also been certified for use by B-52H bombers. Dragon's Eye contains an advanced electronically-scanned array radar that will allow B-52s to quickly scan vast Pacific Ocean areas, so finding and sinking enemy ships will be easier for them. This radar will complement Litening infrared targeting pod already used by B-52s for inspecting ships.^[212][213]

Recent service[edit]

A B-52 taking off from Tinker AFB

B-52 in Australian airshow 2011

In August 2007, a B-52H ferrying AGM-129 ACM cruise missiles from Minot Air Force Base to Barksdale Air Force Base for dismantling was mistakenly loaded with six missiles with their nuclear warheads. The weapons did not leave USAF custody and were secured at Barksdale.^[214][215]

Four of 18 B-52Hs from Barksdale AFB were retired and were in the "boneyard" of 309th AMARG at Davis-Monthan AFB as of 8 September 2008.^[216]

As of January 2013^[update]78 of the original 744 B-52 aircraft were operational in the U.S. Air Force.^[217]

B-52s are periodically refurbished at USAF maintenance depots such as Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma.^[218] Even while the Air Force works on a new bomber, it intends to keep the B-52H in service until 2045, nearly 90 years after the B-52 first entered service, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft, civilian or military.^{[195][219][220][221][Note 8]}

The USAF continues to rely on the B-52 because it remains an effective and economical heavy bomber in the absence of sophisticated air defenses, particularly in the type of missions that have been conducted since the end of the Cold War against nations with limited defensive capabilities. The B-52 has also continued in service because there has been no reliable replacement.^[223] The B-52 has the capacity to "loiter" for extended periods, and can deliver precision standoff and direct fire munitions from a distance, in addition to direct bombing. It has been a valuable asset in supporting ground operations during conflicts such as Operation Iraqi Freedom.^[224] The B-52 had the highest mission capable rate of the three types of heavy bombers operated by the USAF in the 2000–2001 period. The B-1 averaged a 53.7% ready rate, the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit achieved 30.3%, while the B-52 averaged 80.5%.^[188] The B-52's $72,000 cost per hour of flight is more than the B-1B's $63,000 cost per hour, but less than the B-2's $135,000 per hour.^[225]

The Long Range Strike Bomber program is intended to yield a stealthy successor for the B-52 and B-1 that would begin service in the 2020s; it is intended to produce 80 to 100 aircraft. Two competitors, Northrop Grumman and a joint team of Boeing and Lockheed Martin, submitted proposals in 2014;^[226] Northrop Grumman was awarded a contract in October 2015.^[227]

On 12 November 2015, the B-52 began freedom of navigation operations in the South China Sea in response to Chinese man-made islands in the region. Chinese forces, claiming jurisdiction within a 12-mile exclusion zone of the islands, ordered the bombers to leave the area, but they refused, not recognizing jurisdiction.^[228] On 10 January 2016, a B-52 overflew parts of South Korea escorted by South Korean F-15Ks and U.S. F-16s in response to the supposed test of a hydrogen bomb by North Korea.^[229]

On 9 April 2016, an undisclosed number of B-52s arrived at Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar as part of Operation Inherent Resolve, part of the Military intervention against ISIL. The B-52s took over heavy bombing after B-1 Lancers that had been conducting airstrikes rotated out of the region in January 2016.^[230] In April 2016, B-52s arrived in Afghanistan to take part in the War in Afghanistan (2015–present) and began operations in July, proving its flexibility and precision carrying out close-air support missions.^[231]

According to a statement by the U.S. military, an undisclosed number of B-52s participated in the U.S. strikes on pro-government forces in eastern Syria on 7 February 2018.^[232]

Variants[edit]

Production numbers^[1]

Variant	Produced	Entered Service
XB-52	2 (1 redesignated YB-52)	prototypes
YB-52	1 modified XB-52	prototype
B-52A	3 (1 redesignated NB-52A)	test units
NB-52A	1 modified B-52A
B-52B	50	29 June 1955
RB-52B	27 Modified B-52Bs
NB-52B	1 Modified B-52B
B-52C	35	June 1956
B-52D	170	December 1956
B-52E	100	December 1957
B-52F	89	June 1958
B-52G	193	13 February 1959
B-52H	102	9 May 1961
Grand total	744 production

The B-52 went through several design changes and variants over its 10 years of production.^[131]

XB-52

Two prototype aircraft with limited operational equipment, used for aerodynamic and handling tests

YB-52

One XB-52 modified with some operational equipment and re-designated

B-52A

Only three of the first production version, the B-52A, were built, all loaned to Boeing for flight testing.^[53] The first production B-52A differed from prototypes in having a redesigned forward fuselage. The bubble canopy and tandem seating was replaced by a side-by-side arrangement and a 21 in (53 cm) nose extension accommodated more avionics and a new sixth crew member.^{[Note 9]} In the rear fuselage, a tail turret with four 0.50 inch (12.7 mm) machine guns with a fire-control system, and a water injection system to augment engine power with a 360 US gallon (1,363 L) water tank were added. The aircraft also carried a 1,000 US gallon (3,785 L) external fuel tank under each wing. The tanks damped wing flutter and also kept wingtips close to the ground for ease of maintenance.^[233]

NB-52A

The last B-52A (serial 52-0003) was modified and redesignated NB-52A in 1959 to carry the North American X-15. A pylon was fitted under the right wing between the fuselage and the inboard engines with a 6 feet x 8 feet (1.8 m x 2.4 m) section removed from the right wing flap to fit the X-15 tail. Liquid oxygen and hydrogen peroxide tanks were installed in the bomb bays to fuel the X-15 before launch. Its first flight with the X-15 was on 19 March 1959, with the first launch on 8 June 1959. The NB-52A, named "The High and Mighty One" carried the X-15 on 93 of the program's 199 flights.^[234]

B-52B/RB-52B

The B-52B was the first version to enter service with the USAF on 29 June 1955 with the 93rd Bombardment Wing at Castle AFB, California.^[233] This version included minor changes to engines and avionics, enabling an extra 12,000 pounds of thrust using water injection.^[235] Temporary grounding of the aircraft after a crash in February 1956 and again the following July caused training delays, and at mid-year there were still no combat-ready B-52 crews.^[137]

Of the 50 B-52Bs built, 27 were capable of carrying a reconnaissance pod as RB-52Bs (the crew was increased to eight in these aircraft).^[53] The 300 pound (136 kg) pod contained radio receivers, a combination of K-36, K-38, and T-11 cameras, and two operators on downward-firing ejection seats. The pod required only four hours to install.^[137]

Seven B-52Bs were brought to B-52C standard under Project Sunflower.^[236]

NB-52B

The NB-52B was B-52B number 52-0008 converted to an X-15 launch platform. It subsequently flew as "Balls 8" in support of NASA research until 17 December 2004, making it the oldest flying B-52B. It was replaced by a modified B-52H.^[237]

B-52C

The B-52C's fuel capacity (and range) was increased to 41,700 US gallons by adding larger 3000 US gallon underwing fuel tanks. The gross weight was increased by 30,000 pounds (13,605 kg) to 450,000 pounds. A new fire control system, the MD-9, was introduced on this model.^[163] The belly of the aircraft was painted with antiflash white paint, which was intended to reflect the thermal radiation of a nuclear detonation.^[238]

RB-52C

The RB-52C was the designation initially given to B-52Cs fitted for reconnaissance duties in a similar manner to RB-52Bs. As all 35 B-52Cs could be fitted with the reconnaissance pod, the RB-52C designation was little used and was quickly abandoned.^[238]

B-52D dropping 500-lb bombs

B-52D

The B-52D was a dedicated long-range bomber without a reconnaissance option. The Big Belly modifications allowed the B-52D to carry heavy loads of conventional bombs for carpet bombing over Vietnam,^[235] while the Rivet Rambler modification added the Phase V ECM systems, which was better than the systems used on most later B-52s. Because of these upgrades and its long range capabilities, the D model was used more extensively in Vietnam than any other model.^[163] Aircraft assigned to Vietnam were painted in a camouflage colour scheme with black bellies to defeat searchlights.^[71]

B-52E

The B-52E received an updated avionics and bombing navigational system, which was eventually debugged and included on following models.^[235]

One E aircraft (AF Serial No. 56-0632) was modified as a testbed for various B-52 systems. Redesignated NB-52E, the aircraft was fitted with canards and a Load Alleviation and Mode Stabilization system (LAMS) which reduced airframe fatigue from wind gusts during low level flight. In one test, the aircraft flew 10 knots (11.5 mph, 18.5 km/h) faster than the never exceed speed without damage because the canards eliminated 30% of vertical and 50% of horizontal vibrations caused by wind gusts.^{[239][240][241]}

JB-52E

One aircraft leased by General Electric to test TF39 and CF6 engines.^{[citation needed]}

B-52F

This aircraft was given J57-P-43W engines with a larger capacity water injection system to provide greater thrust than previous models.^[235] This model had problems with fuel leaks which were eventually solved by several service modifications: Blue BandHard Shelland QuickClip.^[94]

B-52G

The B-52G was proposed to extend the B-52's service life during delays in the B-58 Hustler program. At first, a radical redesign was envisioned with a completely new wing and Pratt & Whitney J75 engines. This was rejected to avoid slowdowns in production, although a large number of changes were implemented.^[235] The most significant of these was a new "wet" wing with integral fuel tanks, increasing gross aircraft weight by 38,000 pounds (17,235 kg). In addition, a pair of 700 US gallon (2,650 L) external fuel tanks were fitted under the wings on wet hardpoints.^[242] The traditional ailerons were also eliminated, and instead, spoilers provided roll control. The tail fin was shortened by 8 feet (2.4 m), water injection system capacity was increased to 1,200 US gallons (4,540 L), and the nose radome was enlarged.^[243] The tail gunner was relocated to the main cockpit and was provided with an ejection seat.^[242] Dubbed the "Battle Station" concept, the offensive crew (pilot and copilot on the upper deck and the two bombing navigation system operators on the lower deck) faced forward, while the defensive crew (tail gunner and ECM operator) on the upper deck faced aft.^[163] The B-52G entered service on 13 February 1959 (a day earlier, the last B-36 was retired, making SAC an all-jet bomber force). 193 B-52Gs were produced, making this the most produced B-52 variant. Most B-52Gs were destroyed in compliance with the 1992 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty; the last B-52G, number 58-0224, was dismantled under New START treaty requirements in December 2013.^[244] A few examples remain on display for museums.^[245]

B-52H

The B-52H had the same crew and structural changes as the B-52G. The most significant upgrade was the switch to TF33-P-3 turbofan engines which, despite the initial reliability problems (corrected by 1964 under the Hot Fan program), offered considerably better performance and fuel economy than the J57 turbojets.^[163][243] The ECM and avionics were updated, a new fire control system was fitted, and the rear defensive armament was changed from machine guns to a 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon (later removed in 1991–94).^[242] The final 18 aircraft were manufactured with provision for the ADR-8 countermeasures rocket, which was later retrofitted to the remainder of the B-52G and B-52H fleet.^[246] A provision was made for four GAM-87 Skybolt ballistic missiles. The aircraft's first flight occurred on 10 July 1960, and it entered service on 9 May 1961. This is the only variant still in use by the USAF.^[6] A total of 102 B-52Hs were built. The last production aircraft, B-52H AF Serial No. 61-0040, left the factory on 26 October 1962.^[247]

XR-16A

Allocated to the reconnaissance variant of the B-52B but not used. The aircraft were designated RB-52B instead.^[248]

Operators[edit]

United States

United States Air Force 76 aircraft in service as of February 2015^[249]

Air Combat Command

49th Test and Evaluation Squadron (Barksdale)

340th Weapons Squadron (Barksdale)

Air Force Global Strike Command

11th Bomb Squadron

20th Bomb Squadron

96th Bomb Squadron

23d Bomb Squadron

69th Bomb Squadron

Air Force Materiel Command

419th Flight Test Squadron

Air Force Reserve Command

93d Bomb Squadron

343d Bomb Squadron

Notable accidents[edit]

One of the two MK 39 nuclear bombs involved in the 1961 Goldsboro crash after soft landing with parachute deployed. The weapon was recovered intact after three of the four stages of arming sequence were completed.

• On 24 January 1961, a B-52G broke up in midair and crashed after suffering a severe fuel loss, near Goldsboro, North Carolina, dropping two nuclear bombs in the process without detonation.^[250] Three of the eight crew members were killed.


• On 14 March 1961, a B-52F from Mather AFB, California carrying two nuclear weapons experienced an uncontrolled decompression, necessitating a descent to 10,000 feet to lower the cabin altitude. Due to increased fuel consumption at the lower altitude and unable to rendezvous with a tanker in time, the aircraft ran out of fuel. The crew ejected safely, while the unmanned bomber crashed 15 miles (24 km) west of Yuba City, California.^[252]


• On 24 January 1963, a B-52C on a training mission out of Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts, lost its vertical stabilizer due to buffeting during low-level flight, and crashed on the west side of Elephant Mountain near Greenville, Maine. Of the nine crewmen aboard, two survived the crash.^[253][254]


• On 17 January 1966, a fatal collision occurred between a B-52G and a KC-135 Stratotanker over Palomares, Spain, killing all 4 on the tanker and 3 of the 7 on the B-52G. The two unexploded B-28 FI 1.45-megaton-range nuclear bombs on the B-52 were eventually recovered; the conventional explosives of two more bombs detonated on impact, with serious dispersion of both plutonium and uranium, but without triggering a nuclear explosion. After the crash, 1,400 metric tons (3,100,000 lb) of contaminated soil was sent to the United States.^[255] In 2006, an agreement was made between the U.S. and Spain to investigate and clean the pollution still remaining as a result of the accident.^[256]


• On 21 January 1968, a B-52G, with four nuclear bombs aboard as part of Operation Chrome Dome, crashed on the ice of the North Star Bay while attempting an emergency landing at Thule Air Base, Greenland.^[257] The resulting fire caused extensive radioactive contamination, the cleanup (Project Crested Ice) lasting until September of that year.^[255] Following closely on the Palomares incident, the cleanup costs and political consequences proved too high to risk again, so SAC ended the airborne alert program the following day.^[258][259]


• On 7 Jan 1971, B-52C 54-26660 of SAC crashed into northern Lake Michigan at the mouth of Little Traverse Bay near Charlevoix, Michigan, while on a low-level training flight. All nine crew members were lost.^[260]


• On 24 June 1994, B-52H Czar 5261–0026 crashed at Fairchild AFB, Washington, during practice for an airshow. All four crew members died in the accident.^[261]


• On 21 July 2008, a B-52H, Raidr 2160–0053, deployed from Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana to Andersen Air Force Base, Guam crashed approximately 25 miles (40 km) off the coast of Guam. All six crew members were killed (five standard crew members and a flight surgeon).^[262]

Aircraft on display[edit]

Specifications (B-52H)[edit]

B-52H profile, circa 1987

Boeing B-52H static display with weapons, Barksdale AFB 2006. A second B-52H can be seen in flight in the background

Data from Knaack,^[263] USAF fact sheet,^[195] Quest for Performance^[264]

General characteristics

• Crew: 5 (pilot, copilot, weapon systems officer, navigator, electronic warfare officer, and tail gunner until the removal of the tail gun in 1991)


• Length: 159 ft 4 in (48.5 m)


• Wingspan: 185 ft 0 in (56.4 m)


• Height: 40 ft 8 in (12.4 m)


• Wing area: 4,000 sq ft (370 m²)


• Airfoil: NACA 63A219.3 mod root, NACA 65A209.5 tip


• Empty weight: 185,000 lb (83,250 kg)


• Loaded weight: 265,000 lb (120,000 kg)


• Max. takeoff weight: 488,000 lb (220,000 kg)


• Fuel capacity: 47,975 U.S. gal (39,948 imp gal; 181,610 L)


• Zero-lift drag coefficient: 0.0119 (estimated)


• Drag area: 47.60 sq ft (4.42 m²)


• Aspect ratio: 8.56


• Powerplant: 8 × Pratt & Whitney TF33-P-3/103 turbofans, 17,000 lbf (76 kN) each

Performance

• Maximum speed: 560 kn (650 mph, 1,047 km/h)


• Cruise speed: 442 kn (525 mph, 844 km/h)


• Combat radius: 4,480 mi (3,890 nmi, 7,210 km)


• Ferry range: 10,145 mi (8,764 nmi, 16,232 km)


• Service ceiling: 50,000 ft (15,000 m)


• Rate of climb: 6,270 ft/min (31.85 m/s)


• Wing loading: 120 lb/ft² (586 kg/m²)


• Thrust/weight: 0.31


• Lift-to-drag ratio: 21.5 (estimated)

Armament

• Guns: 1× 20 mm (0.787 in) M61 Vulcan cannon originally mounted in a remote controlled tail turret on the H-model, removed from all current operational aircraft in 1991


• Bombs: Approximately 70,000 lb (31,500 kg) mixed ordnance; bombs, mines, missiles, in various configurations.

Avionics

Notable appearances in media[edit]

A 1960s hairstyle, the beehive, is also called a B-52 for its resemblance to the aircraft's distinctive nose.^[267] The popular band the B-52's was subsequently named after this hairstyle.^[267][268]

See also[edit]

• BRANE – airborne computer built by IBM for the B-52

Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration and era

Related lists

References[edit]

Notes[edit]

1. ^ "Fellow" is substituted for "Fuck" or "Fucker" in bowdlerized/sanitized versions of the acronym.^[10]
   


2. ^ Other aircraft with similarly long service include the English Electric Canberra, Tupolev Tu-95, Lockheed C-130 Hercules, Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, Lockheed P-3 Orion and Lockheed U-2.^{[12][13][14][15]}
   


3. ^ Quote:"Designing the B-29 had required 153,000 engineering hours; the B-52, 3,000,000."^[57]
   


4. ^ The Have Nap missile, carried only by the B-52, enabled stand-off attacks on targets while maintaining a "man-in-the-loop" guidance system capability.^[114][115]
   


5. ^ The 93rd Bomb Wing received the Mackay Trophy for accomplishing their round-the-world non-stop flight in January 1957.^[139]
   


6. ^ The following military aircraft are the only aircraft larger than the B-52 in some manner (parameter listed in parenthesis may not be the only figure that exceeds the corresponding parameter of the B-52) and possess an air-to-air capability; none has a combat kill: B-36 Peacemaker (wingspan), Convair YB-60 (wingspan), Ilyushin Il-76D (payload).
   


7. ^ A B-52B, Balls 8, was in use by NASA, a civilian US government entity, until 17 December 2004.
   


8. ^ At least one B-52 aviator's father and grandfather also flew the bomber.^[222]
   


9. ^ The electronic warfare officer sat behind the pilot facing to the rear.^[233]
   

Citations[edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Knaack 1988, p. 291.
   


2. ^ ^{a b} Knaack 1988, p. 241.
   


3. ^ ^{a b} Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved January 5, 2018. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
   


4. ^ ^{a b c} Knaack 1988, p. 289.
   


5. ^ "Fact Sheet: B-52 Superfortress." Archived 18 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine Minot Air Force BaseUnited States Air Force, October 2005. Retrieved: 12 January 2009.
   


6. ^ ^{a b} "B-52 Stratofortress". U.S. Air Force. U.S. Air Force. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
   


7. ^ "The Incredible 50-year-old Plane on the Front Lines of the North Korea Standoff".
   


8. ^ "BUF." Wordorigins.org. Retrieved: 3 November 2009.
   


9. ^ Discovery Channel, Wings, episode Instant Thunder (B-52 Stratofortress)
   


10. ^ Flynn 1997, p. 138.
    


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