Anfang : Russische Kanonen brechen die Tore Pekings Bottom : Amerikanische Truppen erobern die Mauern Pekings
Kriegstreibende
Eight-Nation-Alliance : Zahlreiche Qing-Gouverneure
Boxers Qing-Dynastie
Kommandanten und Führer
Verordnungen: Claude Maxwell MacDonald Vereinigtes Königreich von Großbritannien und Irland " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"/> Sir Edward Seymour Gaselee Expedition: Alfred Gaselee Yevgeni Alekseyev Robert Nivell e Fukushima Yasumasa Yamaguchi Motomi (ja: 山口 素 臣)
Adna Chaffee Emerson H Liscum † Besatzung: Alfred von Waldersee Russische Besetzung der Mandschurei: Aleksey Kuropatkin " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/> Russisches Reich " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/> Paul von Rennenkampf Gegenseitiger Schutz von Südostchina: Yuan Shikai Prinz Qing Li Hongzhang [19456501] Ronglu
Boxers: Cao Futian Zhang Decheng Ni Zanqing [19959016] flag.png " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Yihetuan_flag.png/20px-Yihetuan_flag.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Yihetuan_flag.png/30px-Yihetuan_flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Yihetuan_flag.png/40px-Yihetuan_flag.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="175"/> Zhu Hongdeng Qing-Dynastie: Kaiserin Dowager Cixi Yuxian Oberbefehlshaber: Ronglu Harnerei: Nie Shicheng † Resolute Army: Ma Yukun [27659056] Qing-Dynastie " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500"/> Song Qing Jiang Guiti Gansu-Armee (Gansu Braves): Dong Fuxiang Ma Fuxiang Ma Fuxing Ma Haiyan [V] Qing-Dynastie " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500"/> Ma Biao Aema Yao Wang
Stärke
Alliierte Einsatzkräfte in Peking: ≈50,255
Russische Truppen in der Mandschurei: 100.000 [3] –200.000 [4]
100.000–300.000 Boxer 100.000 kaiserliche Truppen
Verluste und Verluste
2.500 ausländische Soldaten
2.000 chinesische kaiserliche Truppen [6] Unbekannte Anzahl von Boxern
32.000 chinesische Christen und 200 westliche Missionare in Nordchina von chinesischen Boxern getötet [7] Unbekannte Anzahl von Zivilisten
^ Die Niederlande griffen aufgrund ihrer Neutralitätspolitik unabhängig vom Acht-Nationen-Bündnis in den Konflikt ein.
a b Obwohl die Qing-Dynastie Belgien und Spanien den Krieg erklärte, nahmen belgische und spanische Streitkräfte nur an der Belagerung der Internationalen Gesandtschaft teil.
Die Boxer-Rebellion ( 拳 1945 ), Boxer Uprising oder Yihetuan Movement ( 義和團 運動 ) war ein antiimperialistischer, antikolonialer und anti-christlicher Aufstand, der in China zwischen 1899 und 1901 stattfand gegen Ende der Qing-Dynastie. Sie waren durch protonationalistische Gefühle und durch den Widerstand gegen den westlichen Kolonialismus und die damit verbundene christliche Missionstätigkeit motiviert.
Es wurde von der in Gerechtigkeit vereinten Miliz ( Yihetuan ) initiiert, die im Englischen als Boxers bekannt ist, denn viele ihrer Mitglieder waren Praktizierende chinesischer Kampfkünste, auch genannt bis in den Westen als Chinese Boxing . Der Aufstand fand vor einem Hintergrund statt, der schwere Dürre und Störungen durch das Anwachsen ausländischer Einflusssphären beinhaltete. Nach mehreren Monaten gewalttätiger Gewalt in Shandong und der nordchinesischen Ebene gegen die ausländische und christliche Präsenz im Juni 1900, Boxer-Kämpfer, überzeugt, dass sie für ausländische Waffen unverwundbar sind, trafen sie sich mit dem Slogan auf Peking. Unterstützen Sie die Qing-Regierung und vernichten Sie die Ausländer . Ausländer und chinesische Christen suchten Zuflucht im Legationsviertel.
Als Antwort auf Berichte über eine bewaffnete Invasion durch verbündete Amerikaner, Österreicher, Ungarn, Briten, Franzosen, Deutschen, Italiener, Japaner und Russen, um die Belagerung aufzuheben, unterstützte die ursprünglich zögerliche Kaiserin Dowager Cixi die Boxer. 21 erließ ein Reichsdekret, das den ausländischen Mächten den Krieg erklärte. Diplomaten, ausländische Zivilisten und Soldaten sowie chinesische Christen im Legationsviertel wurden 55 Tage von der kaiserlichen Armee Chinas und den Boxern inhaftiert.
Die chinesische Staatsgewalt wurde zwischen denjenigen, die die Boxer unterstützten, und denjenigen, die die Versöhnung begünstigten, aufgeteilt, angeführt von Prinz Qing. Der Oberbefehlshaber der chinesischen Truppen, der Manchu-General Ronglu (Junglu), behauptete später, er habe gehandelt, um die belagerten Ausländer zu schützen. Viele Beamte lehnten den kaiserlichen Befehl ab, in ihrem gegenseitigen Schutz von Südostchina gegen Ausländer zu kämpfen, da Qing vor fünf Jahren den ersten chinesisch-japanischen Krieg verloren hatte.
Die Allianz der Acht Nationen brachte, nachdem sie zunächst zurückgeschlagen worden war, 20.000 bewaffnete Truppen nach China, besiegte die kaiserliche Armee und kam im August in Peking 14 an, was die Belagerung der Gesandtschaft entlastete. Es folgte eine unkontrollierte Plünderung der Hauptstadt und der umliegenden Landschaft sowie die Hinrichtung der Personen, die als Boxer verdächtigt wurden.
Das Boxer-Protokoll vom 7. September 1901 sah die Hinrichtung von Regierungsbeamten, die die Boxer unterstützt hatten, Rückstellungen für die Stationierung ausländischer Truppen in Peking und 450 Millionen Tels Silber vor - etwa 10 Milliarden Dollar bei 2018 Silberpreisen und mehr die jährlichen Steuereinnahmen der Regierung, die in den nächsten neununddreißig Jahren als Entschädigung an die acht beteiligten Staaten gezahlt werden müssen. Die Kaiserin Dowager finanzierte daraufhin eine Reihe von institutionellen und steuerlichen Änderungen, um die Dynastie zu retten.
Historischer Hintergrund [ edit ]
Ursprünge der Boxer [ edit ]
Boxer-Rebellion und Eight-Nation Alliance, China 1900- 1901
Die rechtschaffenen und harmonischen Fäuste (Yihequan) entstanden in den Binnensektionen der nördlichen Küstenprovinz Shandong, die seit langem für soziale Unruhen, religiöse Sekten und Kampfgesellschaften bekannt sind. Amerikanische christliche Missionare waren wahrscheinlich die ersten, die die gut trainierten, athletischen jungen Männer wegen des Kampfsports und des Waffentrainings als "Boxer" bezeichneten. Ihre hauptsächliche Praxis war eine Art geistigen Besitzes, der das Wirbeln von Schwertern, gewaltsame Niederwerfungen und das Singen von Beschwörungen an Gottheiten beinhaltete. [10]
Die Möglichkeiten, westliche Eingriffe und Kolonisationen zu bekämpfen, waren besonders attraktiv arbeitslose Dorfmänner, von denen viele Teenager waren. Die Tradition des Besitzes und der Unverwundbarkeit ging mehrere hundert Jahre zurück, hatte jedoch eine besondere Bedeutung gegen die mächtigen neuen Waffen des Westens. Die mit Gewehren und Schwertern bewaffneten Boxer forderten eine übernatürliche Unverwundbarkeit gegen Kanonschläge, Gewehrschüsse und Messerangriffe. Darüber hinaus behaupteten die Boxergruppen allgemein, dass Millionen von Soldaten des Himmels herabsteigen würden, um sie bei der Reinigung Chinas von fremder Unterdrückung zu unterstützen. [13] Diese Überzeugungen sind charakteristisch für millenarische Bewegungen des nativistischen Widerstands, insbesondere des charakteristischen magischen Glaubens, den die Geistertänzer teilen von Nordamerika und den Karteliten-Kulten von Afrika, dass der Gläubige für Kugeln unverwundbar gemacht werden konnte. [14]
Im Jahre 1895, trotz der Ambivalenz gegenüber ihren heterodoxen Praktiken, war Yuxian ein Manchu, der es war dann Präfekt von Caozhou und wurde später Provinzgouverneur, verwendete die Big Swords Society im Kampf gegen Banditen. Die Großen Schwerter ermutigten diese offizielle Unterstützung und griffen auch ihre lokalen katholischen Dorfgegner an, die sich an die Kirche wandten, um sich zu schützen. Die großen Schwerter reagierten, indem sie katholische Kirchen angriffen und sie verbrannten. "Die Grenze zwischen Christen und Banditen", so ein jüngster Historiker, "wurde zunehmend undeutlicher." Als Folge des diplomatischen Drucks in der Hauptstadt exekutierte Yuxian mehrere Big Sword-Anführer, bestrafte aber niemanden anderen. Danach entstanden weitere Kampfgeheimnisse.
In den frühen Jahren gab es eine Vielzahl von Aktivitäten im Dorf, keine breite Bewegung mit einem vereinten Zweck. Religiöse Religionsgemeinschaften wie die Baguadao (Acht Trigramme) bereiteten den Boxern den Weg. Wie die Red Boxing School oder die Plum Flower Boxer beschäftigten sich die Boxer von Shandong eher mit traditionellen sozialen und moralischen Werten wie der Frömmigkeit als mit fremden Einflüssen. Ein Führer, Zhu Hongdeng (Rote Laterne Zhu), begann als Wanderheiler, spezialisierte sich auf Hautgeschwüre und erlangte großen Respekt, indem er die Bezahlung seiner Behandlungen verweigerte. Zhu behauptete den Abstieg von Kaisern der Ming-Dynastie, da sein Nachname der Nachname der Ming-Kaiserfamilie war. Er kündigte an, sein Ziel sei es, "das Qing wiederzubeleben und die Ausländer zu vernichten" ("扶 清 灭 洋 fu Qing mie yang "). [17]
Ursachen von Konflikten und Unruhen edit ]
Großmächte planen, China für sich zu zerschneiden; Amerika, Deutschland, Italien, Großbritannien, Frankreich, Russland und Österreich sind vertreten durch Wilhelm II., Umberto I., John Bull, Franz Joseph I. (hinten), Uncle Sam, Nicholas II. Und Emile Loubet. Punch 23. August 1899, von J. S. Pughe
Europäische Gesandtschaften hatten in Peking einen besonderen Status: Sie waren nicht den chinesischen Behörden unterstellt. In den Außengebäuden der deutschen Gesandtschaft hatte sich eine Räuberhöhle gebildet, hauptsächlich unter den lutherischen Missionaren. Sie plünderten so viel wie möglich in der Stadt und nahmen dann Schutz in den europäischen Gesetzen, um jeder Strafe für ihre kriminellen Handlungen zu entgehen, und lösten damit Verzweiflung unter den Bürgern aus. In einem Versuch, die aufsteigende Gegenbewegung zu stoppen, setzte der deutsche Minister den Pöbel in Gang, doch es gelang ihm nur, sich im Getümmel zu töten. Um diese Empörung zu rächen, wurde sofort eine Vergeltungs-Expedition organisiert, an der die meisten europäischen Staaten im Gefolge Deutschlands beteiligt waren.
Die Kombination aus extremen Wetterbedingungen, westlichen Versuchen, China zu kolonisieren, und einer wachsenden antiimperialistischen Stimmung befeuerten die Bewegung. Zunächst zwang die Dürre in den Jahren 1897/98 in der Provinz Shandong Überschwemmungen, um die Bauern in die Städte zu flüchten und dort nach Nahrung zu suchen. Ein Beobachter sagte: "Ich bin überzeugt, dass ein paar Tage heftiger Regenfall zur Beendigung der lang anhaltenden Dürre ... mehr zur Wiederherstellung der Ruhe beitragen würden als alle Maßnahmen, die entweder die chinesische Regierung oder ausländische Regierungen ergreifen können."
Ein Hauptgrund für die Unzufriedenheit in Nordchina war die Missionstätigkeit. Der Vertrag von Tientsin (oder Tianjin) und der Konvent von Peking, der 1860 nach dem Zweiten Opiumkrieg unterzeichnet wurde, hatte ausländischen Missionaren die Freiheit eingeräumt, überall in China zu predigen und Land zu kaufen, auf dem Kirchen gebaut werden können. Am 1. November 1897 stürmte eine Gruppe bewaffneter Männer, die möglicherweise Mitglieder der Big Swords Society waren, die Residenz eines deutschen Missionars der Society of the Divine Word und tötete zwei Priester. Dieser Angriff wird als Juye-Vorfall bezeichnet.
Als Kaiser Wilhelm II. Nachrichten über diese Morde erhielt, schickte er das deutsche Ostasiengeschwader nach Jiaozhou Bay an der Südküste der Halbinsel Shandong. Deutschlands Aktion löste ein "Streik um Zugeständnisse" aus, durch das Großbritannien, Frankreich, Russland und Japan auch in China einen eigenen Einflussbereich erlangten.
Im Oktober 1898 griff eine Gruppe von Boxern die christliche Gemeinde von Liyuantun an, wo sich ein Tempel befand Der Jadekaiser war in eine katholische Kirche umgewandelt worden. Streitigkeiten hatten die Kirche seit 1869 umgeben, als der Tempel den christlichen Bewohnern des Dorfes gewährt worden war. Dieser Vorfall markierte das erste Mal, dass die Boxer den Slogan "Unterstützen Sie das Qing, zerstören Sie die Ausländer" ("扶 清 灭 洋 fu Qing mie yang ") verwenden, der sie später charakterisieren würde. Die "Boxer" nannten sich ein Jahr später zum ersten Mal die "Miliz, die in Rechtschaffenheit vereint ist", bei der Schlacht des Senluo-Tempels (Oktober 1899), einem Zusammenstoß zwischen Boxern und Qing-Regierungstruppen. Indem sie das Wort "Miliz" anstelle von "Boxers" verwendeten, distanzierten sie sich von den verbotenen Kampfkunstsekten und versuchten, ihrer Bewegung die Legitimität einer Gruppe zu verleihen, die die Orthodoxie verteidigte.
Die Aggression gegenüber Missionaren und Christen zog den Zorn fremder Menschen an (hauptsächlich europäische) Regierungen. [25] Im Jahr 1899 half der französische Minister in Peking den Missionaren, einen Erlass zu erwirken, der jeder Ordnung in der römisch-katholischen Hierarchie den offiziellen Status zuerkannt. So können die lokalen Priester ihr Volk in Rechtsstreitigkeiten oder Familienrechtsstreitigkeiten unterstützen und umgehen die örtlichen Beamten. Nachdem die deutsche Regierung Shandong übernommen hatte, befürchteten viele Chinesen, die ausländischen Missionare und möglicherweise alle christlichen Aktivitäten seien imperialistische Versuche, "die Melone zu schnitzen", d. H., China Stück für Stück zu teilen und zu kolonisieren. Ein chinesischer Beamter drückte die Feindseligkeit gegenüber Ausländern aus: "Nimm deine Missionare und dein Opium weg und du wirst willkommen sein."
Das frühe Wachstum der Boxerbewegung fiel mit der Hundert-Tage-Reform zusammen (11. Juni - 21. September 1898) . Progressive chinesische Beamte überzeugten mit Unterstützung protestantischer Missionare den Kaiser von Guangxu, Reformen durchzuführen, die viele konservative Beamte durch ihre weitreichende Natur entfremden. Diese Opposition von konservativen Beamten führte Empress Dowager Cixi dazu, einzugreifen und die Reformen umzukehren. Das Scheitern der Reformbewegung enttäuschte viele gebildete Chinesen und schwächte somit die Qing-Regierung weiter. Nach dem Ende der Reformen ergriff die konservative Kaiserin Dowager Cixi die Macht und setzte den reformistischen Kaiser Guangxu unter Hausarrest.
Die nationale Krise wurde allgemein als durch ausländische Aggression verursacht angesehen. Ausländische Mächte hatten China in mehreren Kriegen besiegt, das Recht zur Förderung des Christentums erzwungen und ungleiche Verträge auferlegt, mit denen Ausländern und ausländischen Unternehmen in China besondere Privilegien, extraterritoriale Rechte und Immunitäten gegen das chinesische Recht gewährt wurden, was zu Unmut unter den Chinesen führte. Frankreich, Japan, Russland und Deutschland haben die Einflusssphären herausgearbeitet, so dass sich im Jahr 1900 China wahrscheinlich zerstückelt hätte, wobei jeweils ein Teil des Landes von ausländischen Mächten beherrscht wurde. Um 1900 brach die Qing-Dynastie, die China seit mehr als zwei Jahrhunderten beherrschte, zusammen und die chinesische Kultur wurde von mächtigen und unbekannten Religionen und weltlichen Kulturen angegriffen.
Boxer War [ edit ]
Verschärfende Krise [ edit ]
Im Januar 1900 änderte Kaiserin Dowager Cixi mit einer Mehrheit der Konservativen am kaiserlichen Hof ihre Position bei den Boxern und erließ Verordnungen zu ihrer Verteidigung Proteste von fremden Mächten hervorrufen. Im Frühjahr 1900 breitete sich die Boxerbewegung von Shandong nach Norden schnell in die Umgebung von Peking aus. Boxer verbrannten christliche Kirchen, töteten chinesische Christen und schüchterten chinesische Beamte ein, die ihnen im Weg standen. Der amerikanische Minister Edwin H. Conger verkabelte Washington: "Das ganze Land ist voll von hungrigen, unzufriedenen, hoffnungslosen Faulenzern." Am 30. Mai forderten die Diplomaten unter Leitung des britischen Ministers Claude Maxwell MacDonald ausländische Soldaten nach Peking, um die Gesandtschaft zu verteidigen. Die chinesische Regierung stimmte widerwillig zu, und am nächsten Tag stiegen eine multinationale Streitmacht aus 435 Marine-Truppen aus acht Ländern von Kriegsschiffen aus und reisten mit dem Zug von Dagu (Taku) nach Peking. Sie errichteten Verteidigungslinien um ihre jeweiligen Missionen.
Am 5. Juni 1900 wurde die Eisenbahnlinie nach Tianjin von Boxern auf dem Land unterbrochen und Peking wurde isoliert. Am 11. Juni wurde der Sekretär der japanischen Gesandtschaft, Sugiyama Akira, am Yongding-Tor von Soldaten des Generals Dong Fuxiang angegriffen und getötet, die den südlichen Teil der von Peking ummauerten Stadt bewachten. Bewaffnet mit Mauser-Gewehren, die jedoch traditionelle Uniformen trugen, hatten Dongs Truppen im Herbst 1898 kurz nach ihrer Ankunft in Peking [34] die ausländischen Gesandtschaften so bedroht, dass Truppen des United States Marine Corps nach Peking gerufen worden waren, um die Gesandtschaft zu bewachen. [35] Der deutsche Kaiser Wilhelm II. War von den chinesischen muslimischen Truppen so alarmiert, dass er den Kalifen Abdul Hamid II. Des Osmanischen Reiches aufforderte, einen Weg zu finden, um die muslimischen Truppen vom Kampf abzuhalten.
Der Kalif stimmte der Bitte des Kaisers zu und schickte Enver Pascha ( nicht den zukünftigen jungen Türkenführer) 1901 nach China, aber die Rebellion war zu diesem Zeitpunkt beendet. [36] ]
Ebenfalls am 11. Juni war der erste Boxer in seinem Putz im Legationsviertel zu sehen. Der deutsche Minister, Clemens von Ketteler, und deutsche Soldaten nahmen einen Boxerjungen gefangen und hingerichteten ihn unerklärlicherweise. [37] Als Reaktion darauf brachen Tausende von Boxern an diesem Nachmittag in die von Mauern umgebene Stadt Peking ein und brannten viele christliche Kirchen und Kathedralen in der Stadt Einige Opfer wurden lebendig verbrannt. [38] Amerikanische und britische Missionare hatten sich in die methodistische Mission geflüchtet, und ein Angriff wurde von amerikanischen Marinesoldaten zurückgeschlagen. Die Soldaten der britischen Botschaft und der deutschen Legationen erschossen mehrere Boxer [39] entfremden die chinesische Bevölkerung der Stadt und stupsten die Qing-Regierung an die Unterstützung der Boxer.
Die muslimischen Gansu-Tapferen und Boxer griffen zusammen mit anderen Chinesen chinesische Riten an und töteten die Rituale, um sich für ausländische Angriffe auf Chinesen zu rächen. [40]
Seymour Expedition [ edit
] Als die Lage immer heftiger wurde, wurde am 10. Juni 1900 eine zweite multinationale Streitmacht von 2.000 Matrosen und Marines unter dem Kommando des britischen Vizeadmirals Edward Seymour, dem größten britischen Kontingent, von Dagu nach Peking entsandt. Die Truppen wurden transportiert Mit dem Zug von Dagu nach Tianjin mit Zustimmung der chinesischen Regierung, aber die Eisenbahnlinie zwischen Tianjin und Peking war unterbrochen worden. Seymour beschloss, sich vorwärts zu bewegen und die Eisenbahn zu reparieren oder nötigenfalls zu Fuß voranzukommen, wobei zu bedenken war, dass die Entfernung zwischen Tianjin und Peking nur 120 km betrug. Als Seymour Tianjin verließ und in Richtung Peking aufbrach, ärgerte es den kaiserlichen Hof.
Als Ergebnis wurde der Boxer-Manchu-Prinz Duan zum Anführer des Zongli-Yamen (Auslandsamt) ernannt und ersetzte Prinz Qing. Prinz Duan war Mitglied des kaiserlichen Aisin Gioro-Clans (Ausländer nannten ihn "Blood Royal"), und Kaiserin Dowager Cixi hatte ihren Sohn als nächsten Vertreter des kaiserlichen Thrones benannt. Er wurde der effektive Anführer der Boxer und war extrem gegen Ausländer. Bald befahl er der Qing-Armee, die ausländischen Truppen anzugreifen. Verwirrt durch widersprüchliche Befehle aus Peking ließ General Nie Shicheng die Armee von Seymour in ihren Zügen vorbeifahren.
Admiral Seymour, der am 26. Juni mit seinen Verwundeten nach Tianjin zurückkehrte
Nachdem er Tianjin verlassen hatte, erreichte der Konvoi schnell Langfang Eisenbahn dort zerstört werden. Die Ingenieure von Seymour versuchten, die Linie zu reparieren, aber die alliierte Armee stand umzingelt, als die Eisenbahn dahinter und vor ihnen zerstört worden war. Sie wurden aus allen Teilen von chinesischen Unregelmäßigen und chinesischen Regierungstruppen angegriffen. Fünftausend von Dong Fuxiangs "Gansu Braves" und eine unbekannte Anzahl von "Boxern" erzielten am 18. Juni in der Schlacht von Langfang einen kostspieligen, aber bedeutenden Sieg über Seymours Truppen. Als sich die alliierte europäische Armee von Langfang zurückzog, wurde sie ständig von Kavallerie beschossen, und Artillerie bombardierte ihre Positionen. Es wurde berichtet, dass die chinesische Artillerie der europäischen Artillerie überlegen war, da die Europäer sich nicht die Mühe machten, viel für die Kampagne mitzubringen, da sie glaubten, sie könnten den chinesischen Widerstand leicht überwinden.
Die Europäer konnten die chinesische Artillerie, die Muscheln auf ihre Stellungen regnete, nicht lokalisieren. [44] Die chinesischen Truppen beschäftigten Bergbau, Maschinenbau, Überschwemmungen und gleichzeitige Angriffe. Die Chinesen setzten auch Zangenbewegungen, Hinterhaltungen und Scharfschützentaktiken mit einigem Erfolg gegen die Ausländer ein. [45]
Italienische Infanterie in der Nähe von Tientsin im Jahr 1900
Am 18. Juni kamen Nachrichten über Angriffe auf ausländische Legationen an. Seymour beschloss, weiter am Fluss Beihe entlang in Richtung Tongzhou vorzurücken, 25 Kilometer von Peking entfernt. Bis zum 19. Mai mussten sie ihre Bemühungen aufgrund des sich allmählich verfestigenden Widerstands aufgeben und zogen sich mit über 200 Verwundeten entlang des Flusses nach Süden zurück. Sie beförderten vier zivile chinesische Dschunken entlang des Flusses, luden alle ihre verwundeten und verbliebenen Vorräte auf sie und zerrten sie mit Seilen von den Flussufern mit. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt waren sie sehr arm an Essen, Munition und medizinischem Bedarf. Unerwarteterweise fanden sie dann das Große Xigu-Arsenal statt, ein verstecktes Waffenlager für Qing-Munition, über das die Alliierten kein Wissen hatten. Sie nahmen es sofort in Besitz und besetzten es. Dabei entdeckten sie nicht nur Krupp-Feldwaffen, sondern Gewehre mit Millionen von Munition, Millionen Pfund Reis und reichhaltigen medizinischen Bedarf.
Dort gruben sie sich ein und warteten auf Rettung. Ein chinesischer Diener konnte durch die Boxer- und Qing-Linien eindringen und informierte die Acht Mächte über die Lage der Seymour-Truppen. Sie wurden fast rund um die Uhr von Qing-Truppen und Boxern angegriffen und befanden sich kurz davor, überrannt zu werden. Am 25. Juni traf ein aus 1.800 Mann bestehendes Regiment (900 russische Truppen aus Port Arthur, 500 britische Seeleute mit einer Ad-hoc-Mischung aus verschiedenen Bündnis-Truppen) zu Fuß aus Tientsin ein, um Seymour zu retten. Seymour, seine Truppe und die Rettungsmission marschierten unfreiwillig am 26. Juni zurück nach Tientsin, nachdem sie die Feldwaffen besetzt und alle Munition in Brand gesetzt hatten, die sie nicht einnehmen konnten (geschätzte 3 Millionen Pfund). Seymours Verluste während der Expedition waren 62 Tote und 228 Verwundungen.
Konflikt innerhalb des Qing-Reichsgerichts [ edit
. Qing-Kaisersoldaten während des Boxeraufstands
Am 16. Juni rief die Kaiserin Dowager Cixi in Peking das Reichsgericht für ein Massenpublikum an und sprach die Entscheidung an, ob sie die Boxer benutzen sollten, um Ausländer aus der Stadt zu vertreiben, oder eine diplomatische Lösung suchen. Als Antwort auf einen hochrangigen Beamten, der an der Wirksamkeit der Boxer-Magie zweifelte, antwortete Cixi: Beide Seiten der Debatte vor dem kaiserlichen Gericht erkannten, dass die Unterstützung der Boxer auf dem Land fast allgemein verbreitet ist und dass die Unterdrückung sowohl schwierig als auch unpopulär sein würde , vor allem, als sich ausländische Truppen auf dem Marsch befanden. [48]
In dieser Debatte waren zwei Fraktionen aktiv. Auf der einen Seite standen Ausländer, die Ausländer als invasiv und imperialistisch empfanden und einen nativistischen Populismus auslösten. Sie plädierten dafür, die Boxer zu nutzen, um die Ausweisung ausländischer Truppen und ausländische Einflüsse zu erreichen. Die Ausländer dagegen proklamierten die Annäherung an ausländische Regierungen und betrachteten die Boxer als abergläubisch und unwissend. [ Zitat erforderlich
Das Ereignis, das die Qing-Regierung unwiderruflich neigte Zur Unterstützung der Boxer und des Krieges mit den fremden Mächten befand sich am 17. Juni 1900 der Angriff ausländischer Flotten auf die Dagu-Festungen in der Nähe von Tianjin. Zitat erforderlich
Belagerung der Pekinger Gesandtschaft [ edit ]
Standorte ausländischer diplomatischer Gesandtschaften und Fronten in Peking während der Belagerung
Am 15. Juni setzten die imperialen Streitkräfte der Qing-Gruppe elektrische Minen in den Fluss Beihe (Peiho) ein, um dies zu verhindern Die Allianz der Acht Nationen von der Entsendung von Schiffen zum Angriff. [49] Mit einer schwierigen militärischen Lage in Tianjin und einem totalen Zusammenbruch der Kommunikation zwischen Tianjin und Peking unternahmen die verbündeten Nationen Schritte, um ihre militärische Präsenz deutlich zu verstärken. Am 17. Juni nahmen sie die Dagu-Forts mit, die die Annäherungen nach Tianjin befehligten, und brachten von da an immer mehr Soldaten an Land. Als Cixi ein Ultimatum erhielt [als? forderte, dass China die vollständige Kontrolle über alle seine militärischen und finanziellen Angelegenheiten an Ausländer übergibt, [50] erklärte sie trotzig vor dem gesamten Großen Rat: " Jetzt [the Powers] haben sie mit der Aggression begonnen, und das Aussterben unserer Nation steht unmittelbar bevor. Wenn wir einfach unsere Arme verschränken und ihnen nachgeben, hätte ich kein Gesicht, um unsere Vorfahren nach dem Tod zu sehen. Kämpfen wir bis zum Tod? “[51] An diesem Punkt begann Cixi, die Gesandtschaft mit den Armeen der Peking Field Force zu blockieren, die die Belagerung begannen. Cixi erklärte: "Ich war schon immer der Meinung, dass es den alliierten Armeen 1860 zu leicht erlaubt war zu fliehen. Dann war nur ein gemeinsamer Versuch nötig, um China den Sieg zu sichern. Heute hat endlich die Gelegenheit zur Rache Kommen "und sagte, dass sich Millionen Chinesen für die Bekämpfung der Ausländer einsetzen würden, seit die Manchus China große Vorteile gebracht hatten. [52] Nach Erhalt der Nachricht vom Angriff auf die Dagu-Festungen am 19. Juni Kaiserin Dowager Cixi schickte sofort einen Befehl an die Gesandtschaft, dass die Diplomaten und andere Ausländer innerhalb von 24 Stunden unter Begleitung der chinesischen Armee Peking verlassen. [53]
Am nächsten Morgen trafen sich Diplomaten der belagerten Gesandtschaft um das Angebot der Kaiserin zu besprechen. Die Mehrheit stimmte schnell zu, dass sie der chinesischen Armee nicht vertrauen konnte. Aus Angst, dass sie getötet würden, stimmten sie zu, die Forderung der Kaiserin abzulehnen. Der deutsche kaiserliche Gesandte, Baron Klemens Freiherr von Ketteler, war wütend über die Handlungen der chinesischen Truppen und beschloss, seine Beschwerden vor dem königlichen Hof zu erheben. Gegen den Rat der anderen Ausländer verließ der Baron die Gesandtschaft mit einem einzigen Berater und einem Team von Trägern, um seinen Sänftenstuhl zu tragen. Auf dem Weg zum Palast wurde von Ketteler auf den Straßen Pekings von einem Manchu-Kapitän getötet. [54] Seinem Adjutanten gelang es, dem Angriff zu entkommen, und brachte die Nachricht vom Tod des Barons in die diplomatische Anlage zurück. Bei dieser Nachricht befürchteten die anderen Diplomaten, dass sie auch ermordet würden, wenn sie das Legationsviertel verlassen würden, und entschieden sich weiterhin, der chinesischen Ablehnungsbefehlshaberei von Peking zu widersprechen. Die Gesandtschaft wurde schnell verstärkt. Die meisten ausländischen Zivilisten, darunter zahlreiche Missionare und Geschäftsleute, suchten Zuflucht in der britischen Gesandtschaft, der größten diplomatischen Verbindung. [55] Chinesische Christen waren hauptsächlich im benachbarten Palast (Fu) von Prinz Su untergebracht 19659193] Vertreter der amerikanischen, indischen, französischen, italienischen, britischen, deutschen, österreichisch-ungarischen und japanischen Soldaten und Angehörigen der Alliierten
Am 21. Juni Kaiserin Dowager Cixi erklärte allen fremden Mächten den Krieg. Regionale Gouverneure, die über beträchtliche modernisierte Armeen verfügten, wie beispielsweise Li Hongzhang in Canton, Yuan Shikai in Shandong, Zhang Zhidong [57] in Wuhan und Liu Kunyi in Nanjing, weigerten sich, der Kriegserklärung des Reichsgerichts beizutreten Öffentlichkeit im Süden. Yuan Shikai setzte seine eigenen Truppen ein, um Boxer in Shandong zu unterdrücken, und Zhang verhandelte mit den Ausländern in Shanghai, um seine Armee aus dem Konflikt herauszuhalten. Die Neutralität dieser Provinz- und Regionalgouverneure schloss die Mehrheit der Chinesen aus dem Konflikt aus. [58] Sie wurden "Gegenseitiger Schutz Südostchinas" genannt. [59]
Die Legationen des Vereinigten Königreichs Frankreich, Deutschland, Italien, Österreich-Ungarn, Spanien, Belgien, die Niederlande, die Vereinigten Staaten, Russland und Japan befanden sich im Pekinger Legationsviertel südlich der Verbotenen Stadt. Die Unruhen der chinesischen Armee und der Boxer belagerten das Legationsviertel vom 20. Juni bis 14. August 1900. Insgesamt 473 ausländische Zivilisten, 409 Soldaten, Marinesoldaten und Matrosen aus acht Ländern, und rund 3.000 chinesische Christen suchten dort Zuflucht. Unter dem Kommando des britischen Ministers in China, Claude Maxwell MacDonald, verteidigten der Legationsstab und die Militärs das Gelände mit kleinen Waffen, drei Maschinengewehren und einer alten mündungsgeladenen Kanone, die als International Gun bezeichnet wurde ] weil das Fass britisch war, die Kutsche italienisch, die Muscheln russisch und die amerikanische Besatzung. Chinesische Christen in den Gesandtschaften führten die Ausländer zur Kanone, was sich in der Verteidigung als wichtig erwies. In Peking wurde auch die Northern Cathedral ( Beitang ) der katholischen Kirche belagert. Der Beitang wurde von 43 französischen und italienischen Soldaten, 33 katholischen ausländischen Priestern und Nonnen sowie etwa 3.200 chinesischen Katholiken verteidigt. Die Verteidiger hatten schwere Verluste zu beklagen, vor allem wegen des Mangels an Nahrungsmitteln und Minen, die die Chinesen in Tunneln explodierten, die unter dem Gelände gegraben wurden. Die Zahl der chinesischen Soldaten und Boxer, die das Gesandtschaftsviertel und den Beitang belagern, ist unbekannt.
Am 22. und 23. Juni zündeten chinesische Soldaten und Boxer Gebiete nördlich und westlich der britischen Gesandtschaft an und benutzten sie als "erschreckende Taktik", um die Verteidiger anzugreifen. The nearby Hanlin Academy, a complex of courtyards and buildings that housed "the quintessence of Chinese scholarship ... the oldest and richest library in the world", caught fire. Each side blamed the other for the destruction of the invaluable books it contained.[62]
After the failure to burn out the foreigners, the Chinese army adopted an anaconda-like strategy. The Chinese built barricades surrounding the Legation Quarter and advanced, brick by brick, on the foreign lines, forcing the foreign legation guards to retreat a few feet at a time. This tactic was especially used in the Fu, defended by Japanese and Italian sailors and soldiers, and inhabited by most of the Chinese Christians. Fusillades of bullets, artillery and firecrackers were directed against the Legations almost every night—but did little damage. Sniper fire took its toll among the foreign defenders. Despite their numerical advantage, the Chinese did not attempt a direct assault on the Legation Quarter although in the words of one of the besieged, "it would have been easy by a strong, swift movement on the part of the numerous Chinese troops to have annihilated the whole body of foreigners ... in an hour."[63] American missionary Frank Gamewell and his crew of "fighting parsons" fortified the Legation Quarter,[64] but impressed Chinese Christians to do most of the physical labour of building defences.[65]
The Germans and the Americans occupied perhaps the most crucial of all defensive positions: the Tartar Wall. Holding the top of the 45 ft (14 m) tall and 40 ft (12 m) wide wall was vital. The German barricades faced east on top of the wall and 400 yd (370 m) west were the west-facing American positions. The Chinese advanced toward both positions by building barricades even closer. "The men all feel they are in a trap", said the American commander, Capt. John T. Myers, "and simply await the hour of execution."[66] On 30 June, the Chinese forced the Germans off the Wall, leaving the American Marines alone in its defence. At the same time, a Chinese barricade was advanced to within a few feet of the American positions and it became clear that the Americans had to abandon the wall or force the Chinese to retreat. At 2 am on 3 July, 56 British, Russian and American marines and sailors, under the command of Myers, launched an assault against the Chinese barricade on the wall. The attack caught the Chinese sleeping, killed about 20 of them, and expelled the rest of them from the barricades.[67] The Chinese did not attempt to advance their positions on the Tartar Wall for the remainder of the siege.[68]
Sir Claude MacDonald said 13 July was the "most harassing day" of the siege. The Japanese and Italians in the Fu were driven back to their last defence line. The Chinese detonated a mine beneath the French Legation pushing the French and Austrians out of most of the French Legation. On 16 July, the most capable British officer was killed and the journalist George Ernest Morrison was wounded.[70] But American Minister Edwin Hurd Conger established contact with the Chinese government and on 17 July, an armistice was declared by the Chinese. More than 40% of the legation guards were dead or wounded. The motivation of the Chinese was probably the realization that an allied force of 20,000 men had landed in China and retribution for the siege was at hand.
Officials and commanders at cross purposes[edit]
Han Chinese General Nie Shicheng, who fought both the Boxers and the Allies
The Manchu General Ronglu concluded that it was futile to fight all of the powers simultaneously, and declined to press home the siege. The Manchu Zaiyi (Prince Duan), an anti-foreign friend of Dong Fuxiang, wanted artillery for Dong's troops to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Zaiyi and Dong, preventing them from attacking.[74] Ronglu forced Dong Fuxiang and his troops to pull back from completing the siege and destroying the legations, thereby saving the foreigners and making diplomatic concessions. Ronglu and Prince Qing sent food to the legations, and used their Manchu Bannermen to attack the Muslim Gansu Braves ("Kansu Braves" in the spelling of the time) of Dong Fuxiang and the Boxers who were besieging the foreigners. They issued edicts ordering the foreigners to be protected, but the Gansu warriors ignored it, and fought against Bannermen who tried to force them away from the legations. The Boxers also took commands from Dong Fuxiang.[76] Ronglu also deliberately hid an Imperial Decree from General Nie Shicheng. The Decree ordered him to stop fighting the Boxers because of the foreign invasion, and also because the population was suffering. Due to Ronglu's actions, General Nie continued to fight the Boxers and killed many of them even as the foreign troops were making their way into China. Ronglu also ordered Nie to protect foreigners and save the railway from the Boxers.[77] Because parts of the Railway were saved under Ronglu's orders, the foreign invasion army was able to transport itself into China quickly. General Nie committed thousands of troops against the Boxers instead of against the foreigners. Nie was already outnumbered by the Allies by 4,000 men. General Nie was blamed for attacking the Boxers, as Ronglu let Nie take all the blame. At the Battle of Tianjin (Tientsin), General Nie decided to sacrifice his life by walking into the range of Allied guns.
Xu Jingcheng, who had served as the Qing Envoy to many of the same states under siege in the Legation Quarter, argued that "the evasion of extraterritorial rights and the killing of foreign diplomats are unprecedented in China and abroad."[79] Xu and five other officials urged Empress Dowager Cixi to order the repression of Boxers, the execution of their leaders, and a diplomatic settlement with foreign armies. The Empress Dowager, outraged, sentenced Xu and the five others to death for "willfully and absurdly petitioning the Imperial Court" and "building subversive thought." They were executed on July 28, 1900 and their severed heads placed on display at Caishikou Execution Grounds in Beijing.[80]
Han Chinese General Dong Fuxiang was overtly hostile to foreigners and his "Gansu Braves" relentlessly attacked the besieged legations.
Reflecting this vacillation, some Chinese soldiers were quite liberally firing at foreigners under siege from its very onset. Cixi did not personally order imperial troops to conduct a siege, and on the contrary had ordered them to protect the foreigners in the legations. Prince Duan led the Boxers to loot his enemies within the imperial court and the foreigners, although imperial authorities expelled Boxers after they were let into the city and went on a looting rampage against both the foreign and the Qing imperial forces. Older Boxers were sent outside Beijing to halt the approaching foreign armies, while younger men were absorbed into the Muslim Gansu army.[81]
With conflicting allegiances and priorities motivating the various forces inside Beijing, the situation in the city became increasingly confused. The foreign legations continued to be surrounded by both Qing imperial and Gansu forces. While Dong Fuxiang's Gansu army, now swollen by the addition of the Boxers, wished to press the siege, Ronglu's imperial forces seem to have largely attempted to follow Empress Dowager Cixi's decree and protect the legations. However, to satisfy the conservatives in the imperial court, Ronglu's men also fired on the legations and let off firecrackers to give the impression that they, too, were attacking the foreigners. Inside the legations and out of communication with the outside world, the foreigners simply fired on any targets that presented themselves, including messengers from the imperial court, civilians and besiegers of all persuasions.[82] Dong Fuxiang was denied artillery held by Ronglu which stopped him from leveling the legations, and when he complained to Empress Dowager Cixi on June 23, she dismissively said that "Your tail, is becoming too heavy to wag." The Alliance discovered large amounts of unused Chinese Krupp artillery and shells after the siege was lifted.
The armistice, although occasionally broken, endured until 13 August when, with an allied army led by the British Alfred Gaselee approaching Beijing to relieve the siege, the Chinese launched their heaviest fusillade on the Legation Quarter. As the foreign army approached, Chinese forces melted away.
Gaselee Expedition[edit]
Forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance Relief of the Legations
Troops of the Eight-Nation Alliance in 1900 (Russia excepted). Left to right: Britain, United States, Australia, India, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Japan
Countries
Warships (units)
Marines (men)
Army (men)
Empire of Japan
18
540
20,300
Russian Empire
10
750
12,400
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
8
2,020
10,000
French Republic
5
390
3,130
United States of America
2
295
3,125
German Empire
5
600
300
Kingdom of Italy
2
80
2,500
Austria-Hungary
4
296
unknown
Total
54
4,971
51,755
Foreign navies started building up their presence along the northern China coast from the end of April 1900. Several international forces were sent to the capital, with varying success, and the Chinese forces were ultimately defeated by the Eight-Nation Alliance of Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States. Independent of the alliance, the Netherlands dispatched three cruisers in July to protect its citizens in Shanghai.[84]
British Lieutenant-General Alfred Gaselee acted as the commanding officer of the Eight-Nation Alliance, which eventually numbered 55,000. The main contingent was composed of Japanese (20,840), Russian (13,150), British (12,020), French (3,520), U.S. (3,420), German (900), Italian (80), Austro-Hungarian (75) and anti-Boxer Chinese troops.[85] The "First Chinese Regiment" (Weihaiwei Regiment) which was praised for its performance, consisted of Chinese collaborators serving in the British military.[86] Notable events included the seizure of the Dagu Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin and the boarding and capture of four Chinese destroyers by British Commander Roger Keyes. Among the foreigners besieged in Tianjin was a young American mining engineer named Herbert Hoover, who would go on to become the 31st President of the United States.[88]
The Boxers bombarded Tianjin in June 1900, and Dong Fuxiang's Muslim troops attacked the British Admiral Seymour and his expeditionary force.
The capture of the southern gate of Tianjin. British troops were positioned on the left, Japanese troops at the centre, French troops on the right.
The international force finally captured Tianjin on 14 July. The international force suffered its heaviest casualties of the Boxer Rebellion in the Battle of Tianjin.[89] With Tianjin as a base, the international force marched from Tianjin to Beijing, about 120 km, with 20,000 allied troops. On 4 August, there were approximately 70,000 Qing imperial troops and anywhere from 50,000 to 100,000 Boxers along the way. The allies only encountered minor resistance, fighting battles at Beicang and Yangcun. At Yangcun, the 14th Infantry Regiment of the U.S. and British troops led the assault. The weather was a major obstacle. Conditions were extremely humid with temperatures sometimes reaching 42 °C (108 °F). These high temperatures and insects plagued the Allies. Soldiers dehydrated and horses died. Chinese villagers killed Allied troops who searched for wells.
The heat killed Allied soldiers, who foamed at the mouth. The tactics along the way were gruesome on either side. Allied soldiers beheaded already dead Chinese corpses, bayoneted or beheaded live Chinese civilians, and raped Chinese girls and women.[91] Cossacks were reported to have killed Chinese civilians almost automatically and Japanese kicked a Chinese soldier to death.[92] The Chinese responded to the Alliance's atrocities with similar acts of violence and cruelty, especially towards captured Russians.[91] Lieutenant Smedley Butler saw the remains of two Japanese soldiers nailed to a wall, who had their tongues cut off and their eyes gouged.[93] Lieutenant Butler was wounded during the expedition in the leg and chest, later receiving the Brevet Medal in recognition for his actions.
Chinese troops wearing modern uniforms in 1900
The international force reached Beijing on 14 August. Following the defeat of Beiyang army in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese government had invested heavily in modernizing the imperial army, which was equipped with modern Mauser repeater rifles and Krupp artillery. Three modernized divisions consisting of Manchu Bannermen protected the Beijing Metropolitan region. Two of them were under the command of the anti-Boxer Prince Qing and Ronglu, while the anti-foreign Prince Duan commanded the ten-thousand-strong Hushenying, or "Tiger Spirit Division", which had joined the Gansu Braves and Boxers in attacking the foreigners. It was a Hushenying captain who had assassinated the German diplomat Ketteler. The Tenacious Army under Nie Shicheng received western style training under German and Russian officers in addition to their modernised weapons and uniforms. They effectively resisted the Alliance at the Battle of Tientsin before retreating and astounded the Alliance forces with the accuracy of their artillery during the siege of the Tianjin concessions (the artillery shells failed to explode upon impact due to corrupt manufacturing). The Gansu Braves under Dong Fuxiang, which some sources described as "ill disciplined", were armed with modern weapons but were not trained according to western drill and wore traditional Chinese uniforms. They led the defeat of the Alliance at Langfang in the Seymour Expedition and were the most ferocious in besieging the Legations in Beijing. Some Banner forces were given modernised weapons and western training, becoming the Metropolitan Banner forces, which were decimated in the fighting. Among the Manchu dead was the father of the writer Lao She.[citation needed]
The British won the race among the international forces to be the first to reach the besieged Legation Quarter. The U.S. was able to play a role due to the presence of U.S. ships and troops stationed in Manila since the U.S. conquest of the Philippines during the Spanish–American War and the subsequent Philippine–American War. In the U.S. military, the action in the Boxer Rebellion was known as the China Relief Expedition. United States Marines scaling the walls of Beijing is an iconic image of the Boxer Rebellion.
The British Army reached the legation quarter on the afternoon of 14 August and relieved the Legation Quarter. The Beitang was relieved on 16 August, first by Japanese soldiers and then, officially, by the French.
Evacuation of the Qing imperial court from Beijing to Xi'an[edit]
Painting of Western and Japanese troops
In the early hours of 15 August, just as the Foreign Legations were being relieved, Empress Dowager Cixi, dressed in the padded blue cotton of a farm woman, the Guangxu Emperor, and a small retinue climbed into three wooden ox carts and escaped from the city covered with rough blankets. Legend has it that the Empress Dowager then either ordered that the Guangxu Emperor's favourite concubine, Consort Zhen, be thrown down a well in the Forbidden City or tricked her into drowning herself. The journey was made all the more arduous by the lack of preparation, but the Empress Dowager insisted this was not a retreat, rather a "tour of inspection." After weeks of travel, the party arrived in Xi'an in Shaanxi province, beyond protective mountain passes where the foreigners could not reach, deep in Chinese Muslim territory and protected by the Gansu Braves. The foreigners had no orders to pursue the Empress Dowager, so they decided to stay put.
Russian invasion of Manchuria[edit]
Russian officers in Manchuria during the Boxer Rebellion
The Russian Empire and the Qing Empire had maintained a long peace, starting with the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, but Tsarist forces took advantage of Chinese defeats to impose the Aigun Treaty of 1858 and the Treaty of Peking of 1860 which ceded formerly Chinese territory in Manchuria to Russia, much of which is held by Russia to the present day (Primorye). The Russians aimed for control over the Amur River for navigation, and the all-weather ports of Dairen and Port Arthur in the Liaodong peninsula. The rise of Japan as an Asian power provoked Russia's anxiety, especially in light of expanding Japanese influence in Korea. Following Japan's victory in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, the Triple Intervention of Russia, Germany and France forced Japan to return the territory won in Liaodong, leading to a de facto Sino-Russian alliance.
Local Chinese in Manchuria were incensed at these Russian advances and began to harass Russians and Russian institutions, such as the Chinese Eastern Railway. In June 1900, the Chinese bombarded the town of Blagoveshchensk on the Russian side of the Amur. The Czar's government used the pretext of Boxer activity to move some 200,000 troops into the area to crush the Boxers. The Chinese used arson to destroy a bridge carrying a railway and a barracks on 27 July. The Boxers destroyed railways and cut lines for telegraphs and burned the Yantai mines.[97]
By 21 September, Russian troops took Jilin and Liaodong, and by the end of the month completely occupied Manchuria, where their presence was a major factor leading to the Russo-Japanese War.
The Chinese Honghuzi bandits of Manchuria, who had fought alongside the Boxers in the war, did not stop when the Boxer rebellion was over, and continued guerilla warfare against the Russian occupation up to the Russo-Japanese war when the Russians were defeated by Japan.
Massacre of missionaries and Chinese Christians[edit]
Orthodox, Protestant, and Catholic missionaries and their Chinese parishioners were massacred throughout northern China, some by Boxers and others by government troops and authorities. After the declaration of war on Western powers in June 1900, Yuxian, who had been named governor of Shanxi in March of that year, implemented a brutal anti-foreign and anti-Christian policy. On 9 July, reports circulated that he had executed forty-four foreigners (including women and children) from missionary families whom he had invited to the provincial capital Taiyuan under the promise to protect them. Although the purported eye witness accounts have recently been questioned as improbable, this event became a notorious symbol of Chinese anger, known as the Taiyuan Massacre.[100] By the summer's end, more foreigners and as many as 2,000 Chinese Christians had been put to death in the province. Journalist and historical writer Nat Brandt has called the massacre of Christians in Shanxi "the greatest single tragedy in the history of Christian evangelicalism."[101]
During the Boxer Rebellion as a whole, a total of 136 Protestant missionaries and 53 children were killed, and 47 Catholic priests and nuns. 30,000 Chinese Catholics, 2,000 Chinese Protestants, and 200 to 400 of the 700 Russian Orthodox Christians in Beijing were estimated to have been killed. Collectively, the Protestant dead were called the China Martyrs of 1900. 222 of Russian Christian Chinese Martyrs including St. Metrophanes were locally canonised as New Martyrs on 22 April 1902, after archimandrite Innocent (Fugurovsky), head of the Russian Orthodox Mission in China, solicited the Most Holy Synod to perpetuate their memory. This was the first local canonisation for more than two centuries.[103] The Boxers went on to murder Christians across 26 prefectures.[104]
Aftermath[edit]
Occupation, looting and atrocities[edit]
"The Fall of the Peking Castle" from September 1900. British and Japanese soldiers assaulting Chinese troops.
The occupation of Beijing. British sector in yellow, French in blue, US in green and ivory, German in red and Japanese in light green.
A Boxer is publicly executed.
Execution of a Boxer by the French, Tientsin
Boxers beheaded in front of a group of Chinese and Japanese officials
Execution of Boxers after the rebellion.
Japanese troops during the Boxer Rebellion
Beijing, Tianjin, and other cities in northern China were occupied for more than one year by the international expeditionary force under the command of German General Alfred Graf von Waldersee. Atrocities by foreign troops were common. French troops ravaged the countryside around Beijing on behalf of Chinese Catholics. The Americans and British paid General Yuan Shikai and his army (the Right Division) to help the Eight Nation Alliance suppress the Boxers. Yuan Shikai's forces killed tens of thousands of people in their anti Boxer campaign in Zhili Province and Shandong after the Alliance captured Beijing.[105] Yuan operated out of Baoding during the campaign, which ended in 1902.[106]Li Hongzhang commanded Chinese soldiers to kill "Boxers" to assist the foreign invaders.[107]
From the Chinese point of view, as well as reports from contemporary Western observers, German, Russian, and Japanese troops received the greatest criticism for their ruthlessness and willingness to wantonly execute Chinese of all ages and backgrounds, sometimes burning and killing entire village populations.[108] The German force arrived too late to take part in the fighting, but undertook punitive expeditions to the countryside. Kaiser Wilhelm II on July 27 during departure ceremonies for the German relief force included an impromptu, but intemperate reference to the Hun invaders of continental Europe which would later be resurrected by British propaganda to mock Germany during the First World War and Second World War:
Should you encounter the enemy, he will be defeated! No quarter will be given! Prisoners will not be taken! Whoever falls into your hands is forfeited. Just as a thousand years ago the Huns under their King Attila made a name for themselves, one that even today makes them seem mighty in history and legend, may the name German be affirmed by you in such a way in China that no Chinese will ever again dare to look cross-eyed at a German.[109]
One newspaper called the aftermath of the siege a "carnival of loot", and others called it "an orgy of looting" by soldiers, civilians and missionaries. These characterisations called to mind the sacking of the Summer Palace in 1860.[110] Each nationality accused the others of being the worst looters. An American diplomat, Herbert G. Squiers, filled several railroad cars with loot. The British Legation held loot auctions every afternoon and proclaimed, "looting on the part of British troops was carried out in the most orderly manner." However, one British officer noted, "it is one of the unwritten laws of war that a city which does not surrender at the last and is taken by storm is looted." For the rest of 1900–1901, the British held loot auctions everyday except Sunday in front of the main-gate to the British Legation. Many foreigners, including Sir Claude Maxwell MacDonald and Lady Ethel MacDonald and George Ernest Morrison of The Timeswere active bidders among the crowd. Many of these looted items ended up in Europe. The Catholic Beitang or North Cathedral was a "salesroom for stolen property."[112] The American commander General Adna Chaffee banned looting by American soldiers, but the ban was ineffectual.
Some, but by no means all Western missionaries took an active part in calling for retribution. To provide restitution to missionaries and Chinese Christian families whose property had been destroyed, William Ament, a missionary of American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, guided American troops through villages to punish those he suspected of being Boxers and confiscate their property. When Mark Twain read of this expedition, he wrote a scathing essay, "To the Person Sitting in Darkness" that attacked the "Reverend bandits of the American Board," especially targeting Ament, one of the most respected missionaries in China. The controversy was front-page news during much of 1901. Ament's counterpart on the distaff side was doughty British missionary Georgina Smith who presided over a neighborhood in Beijing as judge and jury.
While one historical account reported that Japanese troops were astonished by other Alliance troops raping civilians,[116] others noted that Japanese troops were 'looting and burning without mercy', and that Chinese 'women and girls by hundreds have committed suicide to escape a worse fate at the hands of Russian and Japanese brutes.'[117] Roger Keyes, who commanded the British destroyer Fame and accompanied the Gaselee Expedition, noted that the Japanese had brought their own "regimental wives" (prostitutes) to the front to keep their soldiers from raping Chinese civilians. Thousands of Chinese women committed suicide; The Daily Telegraph journalist E. J. Dillon stated it was to avoid rape by Alliance forces, and he witnessed the mutilated corpses of Chinese women who were raped and killed by the Alliance troops. The French commander dismissed the rapes, attributing them to "gallantry of the French soldier." A foreign journalist, George Lynch, said "there are things that I must not write, and that may not be printed in England, which would seem to show that this Western civilization of ours is merely a veneer over savagery."
Many Bannermen supported the Boxers and shared their anti-foreign sentiment.[119] The German Minister Clemens von Ketteler was assassinated by a Manchu.[120] Bannermen had been devastated in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895 and Banner armies were destroyed while resisting the invasion. In the words of historian Pamela Crossley, their living conditions went "from desperate poverty to true misery."[121] When thousands of Manchus fled south from Aigun during the fighting in 1900, their cattle and horses were stolen by Russian Cossacks who then burned their villages and homes to ashes.[122] The clan system of the Manchus in Aigun was obliterated by the despoliation of the area at the hands of the Russian invaders.[123]
Under the lead of some highly ranked officials including Li Hongzhang, Yuan Shikai and Zhang Zhidong, several provinces in the southeast formed the Southeastern Mutual Protection during this period to avoid the further expansion of the chaos or the worsening of the situation between China and western powers. These provinces claimed to be neutral and refused to fight either the Boxers or the Eight Nation Alliance.
Reparations[edit]
After the capture of Peking by the foreign armies, some of Empress Dowager Cixi's advisers advocated that the war be carried on, arguing that China could have defeated the foreigners as it was disloyal and traitorous people within China who allowed Beijing and Tianjin to be captured by the Allies, and that the interior of China was impenetrable. They also recommended that Dong Fuxiang continue fighting. The Empress Dowager Cixi was practical, however, and decided that the terms were generous enough for her to acquiesce when she was assured of her continued reign after the war and that China would not be forced to cede any territory.[124]
Mutual Protection of Southeast China in 1900
On 7 September 1901, the Qing imperial court agreed to sign the "Boxer Protocol" also known as Peace Agreement between the Eight-Nation Alliance and China. The protocol ordered the execution of 10 high-ranking officials linked to the outbreak and other officials who were found guilty for the slaughter of foreigners in China. Alfons Mumm (Freiherr von Schwarzenstein), Ernest Satow and Komura Jutaro signed on behalf of Germany, Britain and Japan, respectively.
China was fined war reparations of 450,000,000 taels of fine silver (≈540,000,000 troy ounces (17,000 t) @ 1.2 ozt/tael) for the loss that it caused. The reparation was to be paid within 39 years, and would be 982,238,150 taels with interest (4 percent per year) included. To help meet the payment it was agreed to increase the existing tariff from an actual 3.18 percent to 5 percent, and to tax hitherto duty-free merchandise. The sum of reparation was estimated by the Chinese population (roughly 450 million in 1900), to let each Chinese pay one tael. Chinese custom income and salt tax were enlisted as guarantee of the reparation. China paid 668,661,220 taels of silver from 1901 to 1939, equivalent in 2010 to ≈US$61 billion on a purchasing power parity basis.[125]
A large portion of the reparations paid to the United States was diverted to pay for the education of Chinese students in U.S. universities under the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program. To prepare the students chosen for this program an institute was established to teach the English language and to serve as a preparatory school. When the first of these students returned to China they undertook the teaching of subsequent students; from this institute was born Tsinghua University. Some of the reparation due to Britain was later earmarked for a similar program.
American troops during the Boxer Rebellion
The China Inland Mission lost more members than any other missionary agency:[126] 58 adults and 21 children were killed. However, in 1901, when the allied nations were demanding compensation from the Chinese government, Hudson Taylor refused to accept payment for loss of property or life in order to demonstrate the meekness and gentleness of Christ to the Chinese.[127]
The Belgian Catholic vicar apostolic of Ordos, Msgr. Alfons Bermyn wanted foreign troops garrisoned in Inner Mongolia, but the Governor refused. Bermyn petitioned the Manchu Enming to send troops to Hetao where Prince Duan's Mongol troops and General Dong Fuxiang's Muslim troops allegedly threatened Catholics. It turned out that Bermyn had created the incident as a hoax.[128][129]
The Qing government did not capitulate to all the foreign demands. The Manchu governor Yuxian, was executed, but the imperial court refused to execute the Han Chinese General Dong Fuxiang, although he had also encouraged the killing of foreigners during the rebellion.[130] Empress Dowager Cixi intervened when the Alliance demanded him executed and Dong was only cashiered and sent back home.[131] Instead, Dong lived a life of luxury and power in "exile" in his home province of Gansu.[132] Upon Dong's death in 1908, all honors which had been stripped from him were restored and he was given a full military burial.[132]
Long-term consequences[edit]
The European great powers finally ceased their ambitions of colonizing China having learned from the Boxer rebellions that the best way to deal with China was through the ruling dynasty, rather than directly with the Chinese people (a sentiment embodied in the adage: "The people are afraid of officials, the officials are afraid of foreigners, and the foreigners are afraid of the people" (老百姓怕官，官怕洋鬼子，洋鬼子怕老百姓), and even briefly assisted the Qing in their war against the Japanese to prevent a Japanese domination in the region.
Concurrently, this period marks the ceding of European great power interference in Chinese affairs, with the Japanese replacing the Europeans as the dominant power for their lopsided involvement in the war against the Boxers as well as their victory in the First Sino-Japanese War. With the toppling of the Qing that followed and the rise of the Nationalist Kuomintang, European sway within China was reduced to symbolic status. After taking Manchuria in 1905, Japan came to dominate Asian affairs both militarily and culturally with many of the Chinese scholars also educated in Japan with the most prominent example being Sun Yat-Sen who would later found the Nationalist movement of the Kuomintang in China.
In October 1900, Russia occupied the provinces of Manchuria,[133] a move which threatened Anglo-American hopes of maintaining what remained of China's territorial integrity and the country's openness to commerce under the Open Door Policy.
Japan's clash with Russia over Liaodong and other provinces in eastern Manchuria, due to the Russian refusal to honour the terms of the Boxer protocol which called for their withdrawal, led to the Russo-Japanese War when two years of negotiations broke down in February 1904. The Russian Lease of the Liaodong (1898) was confirmed. Russia was ultimately defeated by an increasingly confident Japan.
Foreign armies assemble inside the Forbidden City after capturing Beijing, 28 November 1900
Besides the compensation, Empress Dowager Cixi reluctantly started some reforms despite her previous views. Under her reforms known as the New Policies started in 1901, the imperial examination system for government service was eliminated and as a result the system of education through Chinese classics was replaced with a European liberal system that led to a university degree. Along with the formation of new military and police organisations, the reforms also simplified central bureaucracy and made a start on revamping taxation policies.[134] After the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the prince regent Zaifeng (Prince Chun), the Guangxu Emperor's brother, launched further reforms.
The effect on China was a weakening of the dynasty and its national defense capabilities. The government structure was temporarily sustained by the Europeans. Behind the international conflict, it further deepened internal ideological differences between northern-Chinese anti-foreign royalists and southern-Chinese anti-Qing revolutionists. This scenario in the last years of the Qing dynasty gradually escalated into a chaotic warlord era in which the most powerful northern warlords were hostile towards the revolutionaries in the south who overthrew the Qing monarchy in 1911. The rivalry was not fully resolved until the northern warlords were defeated by the Kuomintang's 1926–28 Northern Expedition. Prior to the final defeat of the Boxer Rebellion, all anti-Qing movements in the previous century, such as the Taiping Rebellion, had been successfully suppressed by the Qing.
Historian Walter LaFeber has argued that President William McKinley's decision to send 5,000 American troops to quell the rebellion marks "the origins of modern presidential war powers":[135]
McKinley took a historic step in creating a new, 20th century presidential power. He dispatched the five thousand troops without consulting Congress, let alone obtaining a declaration of war, to fight the Boxers who were supported by the Chinese government ... Presidents had previously used such force against non-governmental groups that threatened U.S. interests and citizens. It was now used, however, against recognised governments, and without obeying the Constitution's provisions about who was to declare war.
Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. concurred, writing that:[136]
The intervention in China marked the start of a crucial shift in the presidential employment of armed force overseas. In the 19th century, military force committed without congressional authorization had been typically used against nongovernmental organizations. Now it was beginning to be used against sovereign states, and, in the case of Theodore Roosevelt, with less consultation than ever.
In the Second Sino-Japanese War, when the Japanese asked the Muslim general Ma Hongkui to defect and become head of a Muslim puppet state, he responded that his relatives had been killed during the Battle of Peking, including his uncle Ma Fulu. Since Japanese troops made up the majority of the Alliance forces there would be no cooperation with the Japanese.[137]
Controversies and changing views of the Boxers[edit]
Boxers captured by the U.S. Army near Tianjin in 1901
From the beginning, views differed as to whether the Boxers were better seen as anti-imperialist, patriotic, and proto-nationalist or as "uncivilized", irrational, and futile opponents of inevitable change. The historian Joseph Esherick comments that "confusion about the Boxer Uprising is not simply a matter of popular misconceptions", for "there is no major incident in China's modern history on which the range of professional interpretation is as great".
Chinese liberals such as Hu Shi often condemned the Boxers for their irrationality and barbarity.[139] Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the founding father of the Republic of China and of the Nationalist Party at first believed that the Boxer Movement was stirred up by the Qing government's rumors, which "caused confusion among the populace", and delivered "scathing criticism" of the Boxers' "anti-foreignism and obscurantism". Sun praised the Boxers for their "spirit of resistance" but called them "bandits". Students shared an ambivalent attitude to the Boxers, stating that while the uprising originated from the "ignorant and stubborn people of the interior areas", their beliefs were "brave and righteous", and could "be transformed into a moving force for independence".[140] After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, nationalist Chinese became more sympathetic to the Boxers. In 1918 Sun praised their fighting spirit and said the Boxers were courageous and fearless, fighting to the death against the Alliance armies, specifically the Battle of Yangcun.[141] The leader of the New Culture Movement, Chen Duxiu, forgave the "barbarism of the Boxer... given the crime foreigners committed in China", and contended that it was those "subservient to the foreigners" that truly "deserved our resentment".[142]
Qing forces of Chinese soldiers in 1899–1901. Left: two infantrymen of the New Imperial Army. Front: drum major of the regular army. Seated on the trunk: field artilleryman. Right: Boxers.
In other countries, views of the Boxers were complex and contentious. Mark Twain said that "the Boxer is a patriot. He loves his country better than he does the countries of other people. I wish him success".[143] The Russian writer Leo Tolstoy also praised the Boxers. He accused Nicholas II of Russia and Wilhelm II of Germany of being chiefly responsible for the lootings, rapes, murders and the "Christian brutality" of the Russians and other western troops.[144] The Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin mocked the Russian government's claim that it was protecting Christian civilization: "Poor Imperial Government! So Christianly unselfish, and yet so unjustly maligned! Several years ago it unselfishly seized Port Arthur, and now it is unselfishly seizing Manchuria; it has unselfishly flooded the frontier provinces of China with hordes of contractors, engineers, and officers, who, by their conduct, have roused to indignation even the Chinese, known for their docility."[145] The Indian Bengali Hindu Rabindranath Tagore attacked the European colonialists.[146] A number of Indian soldiers in the British Indian Army agreed that the Boxers were right and the British stole from the Temple of Heaven a bell, which was given back to China by the Indian military in 1994.[147]
Even some American churchmen spoke out in support of the Boxers. The evangelist Rev. Dr. George F. Pentecost said that the Boxer uprising was a "patriotic movement to expel the 'foreign devils' — just that — the foreign devils". Suppose, he said, the great nations of Europe were to “put their fleets together, came over here, seize Portland, move on down to Boston, then New York, then Philadelphia, and so on down the Atlantic Coast and around the Gulf of Galveston? Suppose they took possession of these port cities, drove our people into the hinterland, built great warehouses and factories, brought in a body of dissolute agents, and calmly notified our people that henceforward they would manage the commerce of the country? Would we not have a Boxer movement to drive those foreign European Christian devils out of our country?[148]
A Boxer during the revolt
The Russian newspaper Amurskii Krai criticized the killing of innocent civilians, charging that "restraint" "civilization" and "culture" instead of "racial hatred" and "destruction" would have been more becoming of a "civilized Christian nation". The paper asked "What shall we tell civilized people? We shall have to say to them: 'Do not consider us as brothers anymore. We are mean and terrible people; we have killed those who hid at our place, who sought our protection'".[149]
The events also left a longer impact. The historian Robert Bickers found that for the British in China the Boxer rising served as the "equivalent of the Indian 'mutiny'" and came to represent the Yellow Peril. Later events, he adds, such as the Chinese Nationalist Revolution of the 1920s and even the activities of the Red Guards of the 1960s, were perceived as being in the shadow of the Boxers.[150]
In Taiwan and Hong Kong, history textbooks often present the Boxer as irrational. But in the People's Republic of China, government textbooks described the Boxer movement as an anti-imperialist, patriotic peasant movement whose failure was due to the lack of leadership from the modern working class, and described the international army as an invading force. In recent decades, however, large-scale projects of village interviews and explorations of archival sources have led historians in China to take a more nuanced view. Some non-Chinese scholars, such as Joseph Esherick, have seen the movement as anti-imperialist; while others hold that the concept "nationalistic" is anachronistic because the Chinese nation had not been formed and the Boxers were more concerned with regional issues. Paul Cohen's recent study includes a survey of "the Boxers as myth", showing how their memory was used in changing ways in 20th-century China from the New Culture Movement to the Cultural Revolution.[151]
In recent years the Boxer question has been debated in the People's Republic of China. In 1998, the critical scholar Wang Yi argued that the Boxers had features in common with the extremism of the Cultural Revolution. Both events had the external goal of "liquidating all harmful pests" and the domestic goal of "eliminating bad elements of all descriptions" and this relation was rooted in "cultural obscurantism". Wang explained to his readers the changes in attitudes towards the Boxers from the condemnation of the May Fourth Movement to the approval expressed by Mao Zedong during the Cultural Revolution.[152] In 2006 Yuan Weishi, a professor of philosophy at Zhongshan University in Guangzhou, wrote that the Boxers by their "criminal actions brought unspeakable suffering to the nation and its people! These are all facts that everybody knows, and it is a national shame that the Chinese people cannot forget".[153] Yuan charged that history text books had been lacking in neutrality in presenting the Boxer Uprising as a "magnificent feat of patriotism", and not presenting the view that the majority of the Boxer rebels were violent.[154] In response, some labeled Yuan Weishi a "traitor" (Hanjian).[155]
Terminology[edit]
The first reports coming from China in 1898 referred to the village activists as "Yihequan", (Wade–Giles: I Ho Ch'uan). The first known use of the term "Boxer" was September 1899 in a letter from missionary Grace Newton in Shandong. It appears from context that "Boxer" was a known term by that time, possibly coined by the Shandong missionaries Arthur H. Smith and Henry Porter. Smith says in his book of 1902 that the name
I Ho Ch'uan... literally denotes the 'Fists' (Ch'uan) of Righteousness (or Public) (I) Harmony (Ho), in apparent allusion to the strength of united force which was to be put forth. As the Chinese phrase 'fists and feet' signifies boxing and wrestling, there appeared to be no more suitable term for the adherents of the sect than 'Boxers,' a designation first used by one or two missionary correspondents of foreign journals in China, and later universally accepted on account of the difficulty of coining a better one.[157]
On 6 June 1900 the Times of London used the term "rebellion" in quotation marks, presumably to indicate their view that the rising was in fact instigated by Empress Dowager Cixi.[158] The historian Lanxin Xiang refers to the "so called 'Boxer Rebellion,'" and explains that "while peasant rebellion was nothing new in Chinese history, a war against the world's most powerful states was."[159] The name "Boxer Rebellion", concludes Joseph Esherick, another recent historian, is truly a "misnomer", for the Boxers "never rebelled against the Manchu rulers of China and their Qing dynasty" and the "most common Boxer slogan, throughout the history of the movement, was "support the Qing, destroy the Foreign." He adds that only after the movement was suppressed by the Allied Intervention did both the foreign powers and influential Chinese officials realize that the Qing would have to remain as government of China in order to maintain order and collect taxes to pay the indemnity. Therefore, in order to save face for the Empress Dowager and the imperial court, the argument was made that the Boxers were rebels and that support from the imperial court came only from a few Manchu princes. Esherick concludes that the origin of the term "rebellion" was "purely political and opportunistic", but it has shown a remarkable staying power, particularly in popular accounts.[160]
Other recent Western works refer to the "Boxer Movement", "Boxer War" or Yihetuan Movement, while Chinese studies use 义和团运动 (Yihetuan yundong), that is, "Yihetuan Movement." In his discussion of the general and legal implications of the terminology involved, the German scholar Thoralf Klein notes that all of the terms, including the Chinese ones, are "posthumous interpretations of the conflict." He argues that each term, whether it be "uprising", "rebellion" or "movement" implies a different definition of the conflict. Even the term "Boxer War", which has become widely used by recent scholars in the West, raises questions, as war was never declared, and Allied troops behaved as a punitive expedition in colonial style, not in a declared war with legal constraints. The Allies took advantage of the fact that China had not signed "The Laws and Customs of War on Land", a key document at the 1899 Hague Peace Conference. They argued that China had violated its provisions but themselves ignored them.
Later representations[edit]
British and Japanese forces engage Boxers in battle.
By 1900, many new forms of media had matured, including illustrated newspapers and magazines, postcards, broadsides and advertisements, all of which presented images of the Boxers and of the invading armies.[162] The rebellion was covered in the foreign illustrated press by artists and photographers. Paintings and prints were also published including Japanese wood-blocks.[163] In the following decades, the Boxers were a constant subject for comment. A sampling includes:
In the Polish play The Wedding by Stanisław Wyspiański, first published on 16 March 1901, even before the rebellion was finally crushed, the character of Czepiec asks the Journalist (Dziennikarz) one of the best-known questions in the history of Polish literature: "Cóż tam, panie, w polityce? Chińczyki trzymają się mocno!? ("How are things in politics, Mister? Are the Chinese holding out firmly!?").[164]
Liu E, The Travels of Lao Can[165] sympathetically shows an honest official trying to carry out reforms and depicts the Boxers as sectarian rebels.
G. A. Henty, With the Allies to Pekin, a Tale of the Relief of the Legations (New York: Scribners, 1903; London: Blackie, 1904). Juvenile fiction by a widely read author, depicts the Boxers as "a mob of ruffians."
A false or forged diary, Diary of his Excellency Ching-Shan: Being a Chinese Account of the Boxer Troublesincluding text written by Edmund Backhouse, who claimed he recovered the document from a burnt building. It is suspected that Backhouse falsified the document, as well as other stories, because he was prone to tell tales dubious in nature, including claims of nightly visits to the Empress Dowager Cixi.[166]
In Hergé's The Adventures of Tintin comic The Blue LotusTintin's Chinese friend Chang Chong-Chen when they first meet, after Tintin saves the boy from drowning, the boy asks Tintin why he saved him from drowning as, according to Chang's uncle who fought in the Rebellion, all white people were wicked.
The novel Moment in Peking (1939), by Lin Yutang, opens during the Boxer Rebellion, and provides a child's-eye view of the turmoil through the eyes of the protagonist.
Tulkua 1979 children's novel by Peter Dickinson, includes the effects of the Boxer Rebellion on a remote part of China.
The Diamond Age or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Pri mer (New York, 1996), by Neal Stephenson, includes a quasi-historical re-telling of the Boxer Rebellion as an integral component of the novel
The novel The Palace of Heavenly Pleasure (2003), by Adam Williams, describes the experiences of a small group of foreign missionaries, traders and railway engineers in a fictional town in northern China shortly before and during the Boxer Rebellion.
Illusionist William Ellsworth Robinson a.k.a. Chung Ling Soo had a bullet catch trick entitled "Condemned to Death by the Boxers", which famously resulted in his onstage death.
The 1963 film 55 Days at Peking directed by Nicholas Ray and starring Charlton Heston, Ava Gardner and David Niven.[167]
In 1975 Hong Kong's Shaw Brothers studio produced the film Boxer Rebellion (Chinese: 八國聯軍; pinyin: bāguó liánjūn; Wade–Giles: Pa kuo lien chun; literally: "Eight-Nation Allied Army") under director Chang Cheh with one of the highest budgets to tell a sweeping story of disillusionment and revenge.[168]
Hong Kong's Shaw Brothers Legendary Weapons of China (1981), director Lau Kar Leung. A comedy starring Hsiao Ho (Hsiao Hou) as a disillusioned boxer of the Magic Clan who is sent to assassinate the former leader of a powerful boxer clan who refuses to dupe his students into believing they are impervious to firearms.
There are several flashbacks to the Boxer Rebellion in the television shows Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel. During the conflict, Spike kills his first slayer to impress Drusilla, and Angel decisively splits from Darla.
The 2003 film, Shanghai Knights, starring Jackie Chan and Owen Wilson, shows that the Boxers still exist, working for Lord Rathbone, who wants to assassinate many members of the British Royal Family.
The Last Empress (Boston, 2007), by Anchee Min, describes the long reign of the Empress Dowager Cixi in which the siege of the legations is one of the climactic events in the novel.
Mo, Yan. Sandalwood Death. Viewpoint of villagers during Boxer Uprising.[169]
The pair of graphic novels by Gene Luen Yang, with colour by Lark Pien, Boxers and Saints, describes the "bands of foreign missionaries and soldiers" who "roam the countryside bullying and robbing Chinese peasants." Little Bao, "harnessing the powers of ancient Chinese gods", recruits an army of Boxers, "commoners trained in kung fu who fight to free China from 'foreign devils.'"[170]
The 2013 video game BioShock Infinite featured the Boxer Rebellion as a major historical moment for the floating city of Columbia. Columbia, in an effort to rescue American hostages during the rebellion, opened fire upon the city of Peking and burned it to the ground. These actions resulted in the United States recalling Columbia, which led to its secession from the Union.
The Boxer Rebellion is the historical backdrop for the episode titled "Kung Fu Crabtree" (Season 7, Episode 16, aired 24 March 2014) of the television series Murdoch Mysteries, when Chinese officials visit Toronto in 1900 in search of Boxers who have fled from China.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
^"China Relief Expedition (Boxer Rebellion), 1900 – 1901". Veterans Museum and Memorial Center. Archived from the original on 16 July 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2017.
^Pronin, Alexander (7 November 2000). Война с Желтороссией (in Russian). Kommersant. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
^Hsu, Immanuel C.Y. (1978). "Late Ch'ing Foreign Relations, 1866–1905". In John King Fairbank. The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-521-22029-3.
^Singer, Joel David, The Wages of War, 1816–1965 (1972)
^Hammond Atlas of the 20th century (1996)
^Thompson, Larry Clinton (2009), William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the Ideal MissionaryJefferson, NC: McFarland and Co., Inc., p. 7
^Lanxin Xiang (2003). The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study. Psychologie Presse. p. 114. ISBN 0-7007-1563-0.
^Landes, Richard (17 July 2008), "Millennialism", in James R Lewis, The Oxford Handbook of New Religious MovementsOUP USA, p. 342, ISBN 978-0-19-536964-9
^Lanxin Xiang (2003). The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study. Psychologie Presse. p. 115. ISBN 0-7007-1563-0.
^Spence (1999) pp. 231–232.
^Lynn E. Bodin (1979). The Boxer Rebellion. Osprey. pp. 26, 40. ISBN 0-85045-335-6.
^Lanxin Xiang (2003). The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study. Psychologie Presse. p. 207. ISBN 0-7007-1563-0.
^Chester M. Biggs (2003). The United States Marines in North China, 1894–1942. McFarland. p. 25. ISBN 0-7864-1488-X.
^Kemal H. Karpat (2001). The politicization of Islam: reconstructing identity, state, faith, and community in the late Ottoman state. Oxford University Press US. p. 237. ISBN 0-19-513618-7.
^Weale, B. L. (Bertram Lenox Simpson), Indiscreet Letters from Peking. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1907, pp. 50–1.
^Robert B. Edgerton (1997). Warriors of the rising sun: a history of the Japanese military. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 70. ISBN 0-393-04085-2.
^Morrison, p. 270
^Sterling Seagrave; Peggy Seagrave (1992). Dragon lady: the life and legend of the last empress of China. Knopf. p. 320.
^Smith, Arthur Henderson (1901). China in convulsion. 2. F. H. Revell. pp. 393, 441–448.
^Arthur Henderson Smith (1901). China in convulsion, Volume 2. F. H. Revell Co. p. 446.[not in citation given]
^Victor Purcell (3 June 2010). The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study. Cambridge University Press. pp. 250–. ISBN 978-0-521-14812-2.
^Stephan L'H. Slocum, Carl Reichmann, Adna Romanza Chaffee, United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division (1901). Reports on Military Operations in South Africa and China. G.P.O. p. 533.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^Keith Laidler (2003). The Last Empress: The She-Dragon of China. John Wiley & Sons. p. 221. ISBN 0-470-86426-5.
^Chester C. Tan (1967). The Boxer catastrophe (reprint ed.). Octagon Books. p. 73. ISBN 0-374-97752-6.
^Richard O'Connor (1973). The Spirit Soldiers: A Historical Narrative of the Boxer Rebellion (illustrated ed.). Putnam. p. 85.
^Tan, p. 75
^Robert B. Edgerton (1997). Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 82. ISBN 0-393-04085-2.
^Diana Preston, page 87, "A Brief History of the Boxer Rebellion", ISBN 1-84119-490-5
^Diana Preston, page 79, "A Brief History of the Boxer Rebellion", ISBN 1-84119-490-5
^Edward J. M. Rhoads (1 December 2011). Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press. pp. 74–75. ISBN 978-0-295-80412-5.
^Hsu, The Rise of Modern China pp. 393–398.
^Zhitian Luo (30 January 2015). Inheritance within Rupture: Culture and Scholarship in Early Twentieth Century China. GLATTBUTT. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-90-04-28766-2.
^"Destruction of Chinese Books in the Peking Siege of 1900. Donald G. Davis, Jr. University of Texas at Austin, USA Cheng Huanwen Zhongshan University, PRC". International Federation of Library Association. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
^Smith, Arthur H. China in Convulsion. 2 vols. New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1901, pp. 316–317
^Weale, Putnam. Indiscreet Letters from Peking. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1907, pp. 142–143
^Payen, Cecile E. "Besieged in Peking." The Century MagazineJanuary 1901, pp 458–460
^Myers, Captain John T. "Military Operations and Defenses of the Siege of Peking." Proceedings of the U.S. Naval InstituteSeptember 1902, pp. 542–50.
^Oliphant, Nigel, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking. London: Longman, Greens, 1901, pp 78–80
^Martin, W.A.P. The Siege in Peking. New York:Fleming H. Revell, 1900, p. 83
^Thompson, Peter and Macklin, Robert The Man who Died Twice: The Life and Adventures of Morrison of Peking. Crow's Nest, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 2005, pp 190–191
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^Bruce A. Elleman (2001). Modern Chinese warfare, 1795–1989. Psychologie Presse. p. 124. ISBN 0-415-21474-2.
^Lanxin Xiang (2003). The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study. Psychologie Presse. p. 235. ISBN 0-7007-1563-0.
^趙爾巽等撰;趙爾巽; Zhao, Erxun (1976), Qing shi gao新華書店北京發行所發行, Beijing, OCLC 17045858
^"資料連結".
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^Grant Hayter-Menzies (2008). Imperial masquerade: the legend of Princess Der Ling. Hong Kong University Press. p. 89. ISBN 962-209-881-9.
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^"Russojapanesewarweb". Russojapanesewar.com. 1 July 1902. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
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^Thompson, pp 130, 138
^ abThompson 2009, p. 168.
^Edgerton 1997, pp. 87, 89.
^Edgerton 1997, p. 88.
^George Alexander Lensen (1967). The Russo-Chinese War. Diplomatic Press. p. 14.
^Roger R. Thompson, "Reporting the Taiyuan Massacre: Culture and Politics in the China War of 1900", in Robert A. Bickers and R. G. Tiedemann, ed., The Boxers, China, and the World (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007): 65–92. Thompson points out that the widely circulated accounts were by people who could not have seen the events and that these accounts closely followed (often word for word) well known earlier martyr literature.
^Nat Brandt, Massacre in ShansiSyracuse University Press, p. xiii.
^Andronik (Trubachov). Канонизация святых в Русской Православной Церкви – 5. Канонизация святых в 1894–1917 гг. [Canonization of Saints by the Russian Orthodox Church – 5. Canonization of Saints from 1894 – 1917] (in Russian). Азбука веры (The Faith Alphabet).
^Ying Bai & Kung, James Kai-sing. Diffusing Knowledge While Spreading God's Message: Protestantism and Economic Prosperity in China, 1940–1920. The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. September 2011. Retrieved 2 November 2011. p.3
^Edgerton, R.B. (1997). Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military. Norton. p. 94. ISBN 9780393040852. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
^Ch?ên, J. (1972). Yuan Shih-kʻai. Stanford University Press. p. 76. ISBN 9780804707893. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
^Jan Kocvarp., Germany and the Boxer Uprising in China Archived 11 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine West Bohemian Historical Review Vol. 5.2 2015, p. 159
^Cohen, Paul A. History In Three Keys: The Boxers As Event, Experience, and MythColumbia University Press, ISBN 0231106505 (1997), pp. 185-185
^"Wilhelm II: "Hun Speech" (1900) German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)". germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org.
^James L. Hevia, "Looting and Its Discontents: Moral Discourse and the Plunder of Beijing, 1900–1901", in Bickers and Tiedemann, ed., The Boxers, China, and the World (2007): 94.
^Chamberlin, Wilbur J. letter to his wife (11 December 1900), in Ordered to China: Letters of Wilbur J. Chamberlin: Written from China While Under Commission from the New York Sun During the Boxer Uprising of 1900 and the International Complications Which Followed, (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1903), p. 191
^Patricia Ebrey; Anne Walthall; James Palais (2008). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Lernen lernen. p. 301. ISBN 0-547-00534-2.
^Cohen, Paul A., History In Three Keys: The Boxers As Event, Experience, and MythColumbia University Press (1997), ISBN 0231106505, pp. 184
^Crossley 1990, p. 174.
^Rhoads 2000, p. 72.
^Hansen, M.H. (2011). Lessons in Being Chinese: Minority Education and Ethnic Identity in Southwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 80. ISBN 9780295804125. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
^Shirokogorov 1924, p. 4.
^Chang 1956, p. 110.
^Diana Preston (2000). The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners that Shook the World in the Summer of 1900. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 312. ISBN 0-8027-1361-0.
^Hsu, 481
^"Archive.org". Archive.org. 10 March 2001. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
^Broomhall (1901), several pages
^Ann Heylen (2004). Chronique du Toumet-Ortos: Looking through the Lens of Joseph Van Oost, Missionary in Inner Mongolia (1915–1921). Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press. p. 203. ISBN 90-5867-418-5.
^Patrick Taveirne (2004). Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874–1911. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press. p. 539. ISBN 90-5867-365-0.
^Jonathan Neaman Lipman (2004). Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 181. ISBN 0-295-97644-6.
^"董福祥与西北马家军阀的的故事".
^ abJames Hastings; John Alexander Selbie; Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics. 8. T. & T. Clark. p. 894.
^Paine, S. C. M. (1996). Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier. M. E. Sharpe. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-56324-724-8.
^Benedict, Carol Ann (1996). Bubonic Plague in Nineteenth-Century China. Stanford University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-8047-2661-0.
^Woods, Thomas (7 July 2005) Presidential War Powers, LewRockwell.com
^Schlesinger, Arthur. The Imperial Presidency (Popular Library 1974), pg. 96.
^LEI, Wan (February 2010). "The Chinese Islamic "Goodwill Mission to the Middle East" During the Anti-Japanese War". DÎvÂn Disiplinlerarasi Çalismalar Dergisi. cilt 15 (sayı 29): 133–170.
^顾则徐：清末民初思想领袖评价义和团总览
^Han, Xiaorong (February 2005). Chinese discourses on the peasant, 1900–1949. Staatliche Universität von New York Press. pp. 20, 21. ISBN 0791463192.
^Sun Yat-sen, A Letter to the Governor of Hong Kong", quoted in Li Weichao, "Modern Chinese Nationalism and the Boxer Movement", Douglas Kerr (2009). Critical Zone 3: A Forum of Chinese and Western Knowledge. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 149, 151. ISBN 962-209-857-6.
^Han, Xiaorong (February 2005). Chinese discourses on the peasant, 1900–1949. State University of New York Press. p. 59. ISBN 0791463192.
^Twain, Mark (7 November 2007). Mark Twain Speeches. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-4346-7879-9.
^William Henry Chamberlin (1960). The Russian review, Volume 19. Blackwell. p. 115.
^V. I. Lenin, "The War in China", IskraNo. 1 (December 1900), in Lenin Collected Works (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1964), Volume 4, pages 372–377, online Marxists Internet Archive.
^Robert A. Bickers (2007). The Boxers, China, and the World. Rowman und Littlefield. pp. 149–. ISBN 978-0-7425-5395-8.
^Krishnan, Ananth (7 July 2011). "The forgotten history of Indian troops in China". The Hindu. BEIJING.
^"America Not A Christian Nation, Says Dr. Pentecost" (PDF). The New York Times. 11 February 1912. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014.
^George Alexander Lensen; Fang-chih Chʻen (1982). The Russo-Chinese War:. p. 103.
^Robert Bickers, Britain in China: Community, Culture, and Colonialism, 1900–1949 (Manchester; New York: Manchester University Press, distributed in the US by St. Martin's Press, 1999 ISBN 0719046971), p. 34
^Pt Three, "The Boxers As Myth", Cohen, History in Three Keyspp. 211–288.
^Wang Yi, "The Cultural Origins of the Boxer Movement's Obscurantism and Its Influence on the Cultural Revolution", in Douglas Kerr, ed., Critical Zone Three. (Hong Kong University Press), 155.
^"History Textbooks in China". Eastsouthwestnorth. Retrieved 23 October 2008.
^Pan, Philip P. (25 January 2006). "Leading Publication Shut Down In China". Washington Post Foreign Service. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
^网友评论：评中山大学袁时伟的汉奸言论和混蛋逻辑
^China in Convulsion Vol I, pp. 154–55.
^Jane Elliot, Some Did It for Civilisation", p. 9, 1.
^Xiang, The Origins of the Boxer War p. vii–viii.
^Esherick p. xiv. Esherick notes that many textbooks and secondary accounts followed Victor Purcell, The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study (1963) in seeing a shift from an early anti-dynastic movement to pro-dynastic, but that the "flood of publications" from Taiwan and the People's Republic (including both documents from the time and oral histories conducted in the 1950s) has shown this not to be the case. xv–xvi.
^Peter Perdue, "Visualizing the Boxer Uprising" MIT Visualizing Cultures Illustrated Slide Lecture
^Frederic A. Sharf and Peter Harrington. China 1900: The Artists' Perspective. London: Greenhill, 2000. ISBN 1-85367-409-5.
^met [2007-08-26] (26 August 2007). "Chińcyki trzymają się mocno!?". Broszka.pl. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
^translated by Harold Shaddick as The Travels of Lao Ts'an (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1952), also available in an abridged version which omits some scenes of the Boxers: The travels of Lao Cantranslated by Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang (Beijing: Panda Books, 1983; 176p.),
^Hugh Trevor-Roper: A Hidden Life – The Enigma of Sir Edmund Backhouse (Published in the USA as Hermit of Peking, The Hidden Life of Sir Edmund Backhouse) (1976)
^55 Days at Peking on IMDb
^"HKflix". HKflix. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
^Sandalwood Death (Translated by Howard Goldblatt. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013. ISBN 9780806143392).
^Boxers and Saints (First Second Books, 2013 ISBN 1596439246)WorldCat
Sources[edit]
Cohen, Paul A. (1997). History in three keys: the boxers as event, experience, and myth. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10651-3.
Elliott, Jane E. (2002). Some Did It for Civilisation, Some Did It for Their Country : A Revised View of the Boxer War. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. ISBN 9622019730. David D. Buck, "Review", The China Quarterly 173 (2003): 234–237. calls this a strong "revisionist" account.
Edgerton, Robert B. (1997). Warriors of the rising sun: a history of the Japanese military (illustrated ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393040852.
Esherick, Joseph W. (1987). The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06459-3.
Harrington, Peter (2001). Peking 1900: The Boxer Rebellion. Oxford: Fischadler. ISBN 1-84176-181-8.
Klein, Thoralf (2008). "The Boxer War-the Boxer Uprising". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence.
Leonhard, Robert R. "The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900" (PDF). The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 December 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
Preston, Diana (2000). The Boxer Rebellion : The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900. New York: Walker. ISBN 0802713610.. Questia pay edition; British title: Besieged in Peking: The Story of the 1900 Boxer Rising (London: Constable, 1999)
Thompson, Larry Clinton (2009). William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the "Ideal Missionary". Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 0-78645-338-9.
Xiang, Lanxin (2003). The Origins of the Boxer War: A Multinational Study. Psychologie Presse. ISBN 0-7007-1563-0.
Further reading[edit]
General accounts and analysis[edit]
In addition to the books listed under References, general accounts can be found in such textbooks as Jonathan Spence, In Search of Modern Chinapp. 230–235; Keith Schoppa, Revolution and Its Pastpp. 118–123; and Immanuel Hsu, Ch 16, "The Boxer Uprising", in The Rise of Modern China (1990).
Bickers, Robert A., and R. G. Tiedemann, eds., The Boxers, China, and the World. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7425-5394-1.
Bickers, Robert A. The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1800–1914 (London: Allen Lane, 2011).
Buck, David D. "Recent Studies of the Boxer Movement", Chinese Studies in History 20 (1987). Introduction to a special issue of the journal devoted to translations of recent research on the Boxers in the People's Republic.
Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2018). Yuan Shikai: A ReappraisalThe University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 9780774837781.
Purcell, Victor (1963). The Boxer Uprising: A background study. online edition
Silbey, David. The Boxer Rebellion and the Great Game in China. New York: Hill and Wang, 2012. 273p. ISBN 9780809094776.
"In Our Time – discussion show on The Boxer Rebellion". BBC Radio4.
Missionary experience and personal accounts[edit]
Brandt, Nat (1994). Massacre in Shansi. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-0282-0. The story of the Oberlin missionaries at Taigu, Shanxi.
Clark, Anthony E. (2015). Heaven in Conflict: Franciscans and the Boxer Uprising in Shanxi. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-99400-0
Price, Eva Jane. China Journal, 1889–1900: An American Missionary Family During the Boxer Rebellion, (1989). ISBN 0-684-18951-8. Review: Susanna Ashton, "Compound Walls: Eva Jane Price's Letters from a Chinese Mission, 1890–1900." Frontiers 1996 17(3): 80–94. ISSN 0160-9009. The journal of the events leading up to the deaths of the Price family.
Sharf, Frederic A., and Peter Harrington (2000). China 1900: The Eyewitnesses Speak. London: Greenhill. ISBN 1-85367-410-9. Excerpts from German, British, Japanese, and American soldiers, diplomats and journalists.
Sharf, Frederic A., and Peter Harrington (2000). China 1900: The Artists' Perspective. London: Greenhill. ISBN 1-85367-409-5
Bell, P, and Clements, R, (2014). Lives from a Black Tin Box ISBN 978-1-86024-931-0 The story of the Xinzhou martyrs, Shanxi Province.
Allied intervention, the Boxer War, and the aftermath[edit]
Bodin, Lynn E. and Christopher Warner. The Boxer Rebellion. London: Osprey, Men-at-Arms Series 95, 1979. ISBN 0-85045-335-6 (pbk.) Illustrated history of the military campaign.
Fleming, Peter (1959). The Siege at Peking. New York: Harper. ISBN 0-88029-462-0.
Hevia, James L. "Leaving a Brand on China: Missionary Discourse in the Wake of the Boxer Movement", Modern China 18.3 (1992): 304–332.
Hevia, James L. "A Reign of Terror: Punishment and Retribution in Beijing and its Environs", Chapter 6, in English Lessons: The Pedagogy of Imperialism in Nineteenth Century China (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 195–240. ISBN 0-8223-3151-9
Hunt, Michael H. "The American Remission of the Boxer Indemnity: A Reappraisal", Journal of Asian Studies 31 (Spring 1972): 539–559.
Hunt, Michael H. "The Forgotten Occupation: Peking, 1900–1901", Pacific Historical Review 48.4 (November 1979): 501–529.
Langer, William. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902 (2nd ed. 1950), pp. 677–709.
Contemporary accounts and sources[edit]
Broomhall, Marshall (1901). Martyred Missionaries of The China Inland Mission; With a Record of The Perils and Sufferings of Some Who Escaped. London: Morgan and Scott.. A contemporary account.
Conger, Sarah Pike (1909), Letters from China with Particular Reference to the Empress Dowager and the Women of China (2nd ed.), Chicago: A.C. McClurg
E. H. Edwards, Fire and Sword in Shansi: The Story of the Martyrdom of Foreigners and Chinese Christians (New York: Revell, 1903)
Isaac Taylor Headland, Chinese Heroes; Being a Record of Persecutions Endured by Native Christians in the Boxer Uprising (New York, Cincinnati: Eaton & Mains; Jennings & Pye, 1902).
Arnold Henry Savage Landor, China and the Allies (New York: Scribner's, 1901). 01008198 Google Books: [1]
Pierre Loti, The Last Days of Pekin (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1902): tr. of Les Derniers Jours De Pékin (Paris: Lévy, 1900).
W. A. P. Martin, The Siege in Peking, China against the World (New York: F. H. Revell company, 1900).
Putnam Weale, Bertram Lenox, (1907). Indiscreet Letters from Peking: Being the Notes of an Eyewitness, Which Set Forth in Some Detail, From Day to Day, The Real Story of the Siege and Sack of a Distressed Capital in 1900– The Year of Great Tribulation. Dodd, Mead. Free ebook. Project Gutenberg.
Arthur H.Smith, China in Convulsion (New York: F. H. Revell Co., 1901). Vol. I An account of the Boxers and the siege by a missionary who had lived in a North China village.
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