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Hebräischer Kalender - Wikipedia


Jüdischer Kalender mit Adar II zwischen 1927 und 1948

Der Hebräische oder Jüdische Kalender ( הַלּוּחַ הָעִבְרִי Ha-Luah ha -Ivri ) ist ein lunisolarer Kalender, der heute vorwiegend für jüdische religiöse Veranstaltungen verwendet wird. Es bestimmt die Daten für jüdische Feiertage und die entsprechende öffentliche Lesung der Torah-Teile, yahrzeits (Daten zum Gedenken an den Tod eines Verwandten) und tägliche Psalmlesungen unter vielen zeremoniellen Verwendungen. In Israel wird es für religiöse Zwecke verwendet, bietet einen Zeitrahmen für die Landwirtschaft und ist ein offizieller Kalender für zivile Zwecke, obwohl der letztere Gebrauch zugunsten des Gregorianischen Kalenders immer weniger wurde.

Der vorliegende hebräische Kalender ist das Produkt der Evolution, einschließlich eines babylonischen Einflusses. Bis zur tannaitischen Periode (ungefähr 10–220 v. Chr.) Wurde im Kalender ein neuer Halbmond eingesetzt. Normalerweise wird alle zwei bis drei Jahre ein zusätzlicher Monat hinzugefügt, um den Unterschied zwischen zwölf Mondmonaten und dem Sonnenjahr zu korrigieren. Das Jahr, in dem es hinzugefügt wurde, beruhte auf der Beobachtung natürlicher landwirtschaftlicher Ereignisse im alten Israel. [1] Während der amoraischen Zeit (200–500 v. Chr.) Und bis in die geonische Zeit wurde dieses System durch die verwendeten mathematischen Regeln schrittweise verdrängt heute. Die Grundsätze und Regeln wurden von Maimonides in der Mischisch-Torah des 12. Jahrhunderts im 12. Jahrhundert vollständig kodifiziert. Maimonides 'Werk ersetzte auch das Zählen "Jahre seit der Zerstörung des Tempels" durch die moderne Schöpfungszeit Anno Mundi .

Das hebräische Mondjahr ist etwa elf Tage kürzer als das Sonnenjahr und verwendet den 19-jährigen Metonic-Zyklus, um es mit dem Sonnenjahr in Einklang zu bringen, wobei alle zwei oder drei Jahre ein Interkalarmonat hinzugefügt wird von sieben Mal pro 19 Jahre. Trotz dieser Interkalation ist das durchschnittliche hebräische Kalenderjahr um etwa 6 Minuten und 40 Sekunden länger als das aktuelle mittlere tropische Jahr, so dass der hebräische Kalender alle 216 Jahre einen Tag hinter dem aktuellen mittleren tropischen Jahr zurückbleibt. und ungefähr alle 231 Jahre wird es einen Tag hinter dem gemeinen gregorianischen Kalenderjahr zurückfallen. [ Zitat benötigt ]

Die seit dem Mittelalter verwendete Ära ist die Anno Mundi Epoche (lateinisch für "im Jahr der Welt"; hebräisch: לבריאת העולם [19459011"vonderSchöpfungderWelt")Wiebei Anno Domini (AD oder AD) sollten die Wörter oder Abkürzungen für Anno Mundi (AM oder AM) für die Ära das Datum eher vor als stehen Folge es.

AM 5779 begann am 9. September 2018 bei Sonnenuntergang und endet am 29. September 2019 bei Sonnenuntergang. [2]




Komponenten [ edit ]


Tag und Stunden [ ] edit ]



Der jüdische Tag hat keine feste Länge. Der jüdische Tag basiert auf dem Verweis auf "... es gab Abend und es gab Morgen ..." [3] im Schöpfungsbericht im ersten Kapitel von Genesis. Basierend auf der klassischen rabbinischen Interpretation dieses Textes läuft ein Tag im rabbinischen hebräischen Kalender vom Sonnenuntergang (Beginn des "Abends") bis zum nächsten Sonnenuntergang. [4] Halachisch endet ein Tag und ein neuer beginnt, wenn drei Sterne vorhanden sind sichtbar am himmel. Die Zeit zwischen dem wahren Sonnenuntergang und der Zeit, zu der die drei Sterne sichtbar sind (bekannt als "Tzait ha'kochavim"), wird als "bein hasmmashot" bezeichnet, und es gibt Meinungsverschiedenheiten darüber, an welchen Tag es für einige Zwecke fällt. Dies kann zum Beispiel bei der Bestimmung des Geburtsdatums eines während dieser Lücke geborenen Kindes relevant sein. [5]

Es gibt keine Uhr im jüdischen System, so dass die örtliche Standuhr steht gebraucht. Obwohl die Standuhr, einschließlich der in Israel verwendeten, lokale Anpassungen verschiedener Konventionen wie Zeitzonen, Standardzeiten und Sommerzeit beinhaltet, haben diese im jüdischen System keinen Platz. Die Standuhr dient nur als Anhaltspunkt - in Ausdrücken wie: "Der Schabbat beginnt um ...". Das stetige Fortschreiten des Sonnenuntergangs auf der ganzen Welt und saisonale Veränderungen führen zu allmählichen zivilen Zeitänderungen von einem Tag auf den nächsten, die auf beobachtbaren astronomischen Phänomenen (dem Sonnenuntergang) und nicht auf von Menschen gemachten Gesetzen und Konventionen beruhen.

Im Judentum wird eine Stunde als 1/12 der Zeit von Sonnenaufgang bis Sonnenuntergang definiert, daher kann eine Stunde im Winter viel weniger als 60 Minuten und im Sommer viel mehr als 60 sein Protokoll. Diese proportionale Stunde ist als sha'ah z'manit bekannt (wörtlich eine rechtzeitige Stunde). Eine jüdische Stunde ist in 1080 Halakim (Singular: Helek ) oder Teile unterteilt. Ein Teil ist 3⅓ Sekunden oder 1 / 18 Minute. Der ultimative Vorfahr des Heleks war eine kleine babylonische Zeitperiode, genannt Gerstenkorn die selbst gleich 1 / 72 eines babylonischen Zeitabschnitts war ] (1 ° Himmelsrotation). [6] Diese Maßnahmen werden im Allgemeinen nicht für Alltagszwecke verwendet.

Anstelle der internationalen Terminvereinbarung gibt es unterschiedliche Meinungen darüber, wo sich der Tag ändert. Eine Meinung verwendet den Antimeridian von Jerusalem. (Jerusalem liegt 35 ° 13 'östlich des Nullmeridians, also liegt der Antimeridian bei 144 ° 47' W und verläuft durch Ost-Alaska.) Es gibt auch andere Meinungen. [7][8] (Siehe Internationale Datumsgrenze im Judentum.)

Die Wochentage beginnen mit Sonntag (Tag 1 oder Yom Rishon ) und fahren bis Samstag (Tag 7), Schabbat, fort. Da einige Berechnungen eine Division verwenden, bedeutet ein Rest von 0 Samstag.

Während Berechnungen von Tagen, Monaten und Jahren auf festen Stunden basieren, die auf 1 / 24 eines Tages liegen, ist der Beginn eines jeden halachischen Tages basierend auf der Ortszeit des Sonnenuntergangs. Das Ende des Schabbats und anderer jüdischer Feiertage beruht auf der Einbruch der Nacht ( Tzeth haKochabim ), die einige Zeit, typischerweise 42 bis 72 Minuten, nach Sonnenuntergang auftritt. Laut Maimonides tritt der Abend ein, wenn drei mittelgroße Sterne nach Sonnenuntergang sichtbar werden. Im 17. Jahrhundert waren dies Sterne mit einer Stärke von drei Sekunden. Die moderne Definition ist, wenn der Sonnenmittelpunkt 7 ° unter dem geometrischen (luftlosen) Horizont liegt, etwas später als bei der bürgerlichen Dämmerung bei 6 °. Der Beginn des Tagesanteils eines jeden Tages wird sowohl vom Morgengrauen als auch vom Sonnenaufgang bestimmt. Die meisten halachischen Zeiten basieren auf einer Kombination dieser vier Male und variieren von Tag zu Tag im Jahresverlauf und variieren auch erheblich je nach Standort. Die Tagesstunden werden oft in Sha'oth Zemaniyoth oder "Halachische Stunden" unterteilt, indem die Zeit zwischen Sonnenaufgang und Sonnenuntergang oder zwischen Morgengrauen und Einbruch der Nacht genommen und in 12 gleiche Stunden aufgeteilt wird. Die Nachtstunden sind auf ähnliche Weise in 12 gleiche Teile aufgeteilt, wenn auch eine andere Zeitdauer als die "Stunden" des Tages. Die früheste und späteste Zeit für jüdische Gottesdienste, die späteste Zeit, um Chametz am Tag vor dem Passahfest zu essen, und viele andere Regeln basieren auf Sha'oth Zemaniyoth . Der Einfachheit halber wird in der heutigen Zeit unter Verwendung von Sha'oth Zemaniyoth oft so diskutiert, als ob der Sonnenuntergang um 18.00 Uhr, der Sonnenaufgang um 6.00 Uhr und jede Stunde einer festen Stunde gleich wäre. Halachic Mittag kann in einigen Gebieten während der Sommerzeit nach 13:00 Uhr sein. In der Mischna beginnt die Nummerierung der Stunden jedoch mit der "ersten" Stunde nach dem Beginn des Tages. [9]


Weeks [ edit


ist Shavua [שבוע] ein wöchentlicher Zyklus von sieben Tagen, der die Sieben-Tage-Periode des Buches Genesis widerspiegelt, in der die Welt geschaffen wird. Die Namen der Wochentage sind wie die des Erstellungskontos einfach die Tagesnummer innerhalb der Woche, wobei der Schabbat der siebte Tag ist. Jeder Tag der Woche läuft von Sonnenuntergang bis zum folgenden Sonnenuntergang und wird vor Ort angezeigt.


Namen der Wochentage [ edit ]



Der hebräische Kalender folgt einem wöchentlichen Zyklus von sieben Tagen, der gleichzeitig, jedoch unabhängig von den Monats- und Jahreszyklen abläuft. Die Namen der Wochentage sind lediglich die Tagesnummern innerhalb der Woche. Auf hebräisch können diese Namen mit dem Zahlenwert der hebräischen Buchstaben abgekürzt werden, zum Beispiel ( Day 1 ) oder Yom Rishon ( יום ראשון ) ])):


  1. Yom Rishon - יו01 ראיון (abgekürzt יום א׳ ). Dies bedeutet "erster Tag" [corresponds to Sunday] (beginnend mit dem vorhergehenden Sonnenuntergang am Samstag)

  2. Yom Sheni - יום שני (kurz יום ב׳ ), was "zweiter Tag" bedeutet [corresponds to Monday]

  3. Yom Shlishi - יום שלישי (abbr.). יו01] ) bedeutet "dritter Tag" [corresponds to Tuesday]

  4. Yom Reviʻi - יום רביעי (kurz יום ד׳ ) und bedeutet " vierter Tag "[corresponds to Wednesday]

  5. Yom Chamishi - יו90 ​​חמישי (kurz: יום ה׳ ) =" fünfter Tag "[corresponds to Thursday]

  6. Yom Shishi - [19659030] יום שישי (Abk. יום ו׳ ), was "sechster Tag" bedeutet [corresponds to Friday]

  7. Jom Shabbat - יום שבת (abbr. [1990990]) ] יום ש׳ ) oder häufiger einfach Shabbat - [בת bedeutet "Ruhetag" [corresponds to Saturday]

. Yom Shabbat ( יום שבת ) wird auch als Yom Shabbat Kodesh - [1945בתקודש[19999] bezeichnet. Bedeutung "heiliger Ruhetag".

Die Namen der Wochentage orientieren sich an den sieben Tagen, die in der Schöpfungsgeschichte erwähnt werden. Zum Beispiel, Genesis 1: 5 "... und es gab Abend und es gab Morgen, einen Tag". Eines Tages ( יוֹם אֶחָד ) in 1. Mose 1: 5 wird in JPS als erster Tag und in einigen anderen Zusammenhängen (einschließlich KJV) als übersetzt Tag 1 . In den folgenden Versen bezieht sich das Hebräisch auf die Tage mit Ordnungszahlen, z. B. 'zweiter Tag', 'dritter Tag' usw., aber mit dem sechsten und siebten Tag enthält der Hebräer den bestimmten Artikel ("der"). [10]

Der Ruhetag Schabbat hat im jüdischen Wochenzyklus eine besondere Rolle als besonderer und abgesonderter Tag, an dem keine Arbeit verrichtet wird. Es gibt viele Sonderregeln, die sich auf den Schabbat beziehen, der im Talmudtraktat Schabbat ausführlicher erörtert wird.

Im (talmudischen) Hebräisch kann das Wort Schabbat ( שַׁבָּת ) auch "Woche" bedeuten, [11] so dass in der Ritualliturgie ein Satz wie "Yom Reviʻi bhababat" steht "bedeutet" der vierte Tag in der Woche ". [12]


Tage der Feiertage [ edit ]



Der Zeitraum von 1 Adar (oder Adar II in Schaltjahren) bis 29 Marcheshvan enthält alle Feste, die in der Bibel aufgeführt sind - Pesach (15 Nisan), Schawuot (6 Sivan), Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei), Yom Kippur (10 Tishrei), Sukkot (15 Tishrei) und Shemini Atzeret (22 Tishrei). . Diese Zeit ist festgelegt, während der keine Anpassungen vorgenommen werden.


Der hebräische Kalender enthält zusätzliche Regeln, um zu verhindern, dass bestimmte Feiertage an bestimmten Wochentagen fallen. (Siehe die Aufschubregeln für Rosh Hashanah, weiter unten.) Diese Regeln werden implementiert, indem Marcheshvan um einen zusätzlichen Tag (30 Tage lang) hinzugefügt wird oder indem ein Tag aus Kislev (29 Tage) entfernt wird. Dementsprechend kann ein gewöhnliches hebräisches Kalenderjahr eine Länge von 353, 354 oder 355 Tagen haben, während ein hebräisches Schaltkalenderjahr eine Länge von 383, 384 oder 385 Tagen haben kann.


Monate [ edit ]


Der hebräische Kalender ist ein lunisolarer Kalender, dh Monate beziehen sich auf Mondmonate, aber Jahre basieren auf Sonnenjahren. [13] Das Kalenderjahr umfasst zwölf Mondmonate von neunundzwanzig oder dreißig Tagen, wobei in regelmäßigen Abständen ein interkalärer Mondmonat hinzugefügt wird, um die zwölf Mondzyklen mit dem längeren Sonnenjahr zu synchronisieren. (Diese zusätzlichen Monate werden siebenmal alle neunzehn Jahre addiert. Siehe Sprungmonate unten.) Der Beginn jedes jüdischen Mondmonats basiert auf dem Erscheinen des Neumonds. [14] Obwohl ursprünglich der neue Mondhalbmond beobachtet werden musste Zeugenaussagen zufolge [15] wird der Moment des wahren Neumonds nun arithmetisch als molad angenähert, was der mittlere Neumond mit einer Genauigkeit von einem Teil ist.

Die mittlere Periode des Mondmonats (genau der synodische Monat) liegt sehr nahe bei 29,5 Tagen. Dementsprechend ist das grundlegende hebräische Kalenderjahr einer von zwölf Mondmonaten, die zwischen 29 und 30 Tagen abwechseln:


In Schaltjahren (wie 5779) wird nach Shevat ein weiterer Monat Adar I (30 Tage) hinzugefügt, während der reguläre Adar als "Adar II" bezeichnet wird.

Die Einfügung des oben erwähnten Schaltmonats basiert auf der Anforderung, dass das Passahfest - das im Frühjahr stattfindende Fest des Exodus aus Ägypten - immer im Frühling (19459544) stattfindet. Seit der Einführung eines festen Kalenders wurden Interkalationen im hebräischen Kalender in einem 19-jährigen Zyklus festen Punkten zugewiesen. Zuvor wurde die Interkalation empirisch bestimmt:


Das Jahr kann aus drei Gründen interkaliert werden: 'aviv [i.e.the ripeness of barley]Früchte von Bäumen und Äquinoktikum. Aus zwei Gründen sollte es interkaliert werden, aber nicht auf einen davon allein. [16]


Wichtigkeit der Mondmonate [ edit ]


Schon sehr früh war der mesopotamische Mondkalender weit verbreitet in den Ländern der westlichen Region Asien. Die Struktur, die auch von den Israeliten verwendet wurde, basierte auf Mondmonaten mit der Einlagerung eines zusätzlichen Monats, um den Zyklus dem Sonnenzyklus näher zu bringen, obwohl es keinen Hinweis auf einen dreizehnten Monat in der hebräischen Bibel gibt. [17]

Num 10:10 hebt die Bedeutung des neuen Monats in der israelitischen religiösen Einhaltung hervor (Hebräisch: ראש חודש Rosh Chodesh, "Anfang des Monats"): "... in euren neuen Monden sollt ihr mit den Posaunen über euren Brandopfern blasen ..." Ähnlich in Num 28:11. "Anfang des Monats" bedeutete das Erscheinen eines Neumonds und in Exod 12: 2. "Dieser Monat ist für Sie".

Gemäß der Mischennah von 19459014 (19459013) und Tosefta (Maccabean, Herodian und Mishnaic) wurden neue Monate durch das Anvisieren eines neuen Halbmonds bestimmt, wobei zwei Augenzeugen vor dem Sanhedrin Zeugnis ablegen mussten Der neue Mondhalbmond bei Sonnenuntergang. [18] In der Zeit von Gamaliel II. (ca. 100 n.Chr.) wurden Zeugen das Aussehen des Mondes aus einer Sammlung von Zeichnungen auswählen, die den Halbmond nur in verschiedenen Ausrichtungen darstellten Einige davon könnten in einem bestimmten Monat gültig sein. [19] Diese Beobachtungen wurden mit Berechnungen verglichen. [20]

Zunächst wurde den Gemeinden in Israel und Israel der Beginn jedes jüdischen Monats signalisiert Darüber hinaus brannten Feuer auf Bergspitzen, aber nachdem die Samaritaner falsche Feuer angezündet hatten, wurden Boten geschickt. [21] Die Unfähigkeit der Boten, vor den Hochheiligen Tagen (Sukkot und Passah) Mitte des Monats in die Gemeinden außerhalb Israels zu gelangen, führte zu einem Außenkommando Feste, die zwei Tage lang statt der Feste der Schrift feiern, feiern den zweiten Festtag der jüdischen Diaspora aus Ungewissheit, ob der Vormonat nach 29 oder 30 Tagen endete. [22]


Maimonides fügte in seiner Arbeit Mishneh Torah (1178) ein Kapitel "Sanctification of the New Moon" hinzu, in dem er die Kalenderregeln und ihre biblischen Grundlagen diskutiert. Er stellt fest,

"Um wie viel überschreitet das Sonnenjahr das Mondjahr? Um etwa elf Tage. Wenn also dieser Überschuss sich auf etwa 30 Tage oder etwas mehr oder weniger ansammelt, wird ein Monat und das jeweilige Jahr hinzugefügt besteht aus 13 Monaten, und dies ist das sogenannte embolismische (interkalierte) Jahr. Für das Jahr konnte es nicht zwölf Monate plus so und viele Tage dauern, da es gesagt wird: während der Monate des Jahres (Num 28:14), was bedeutet, dass wir das Jahr nach Monaten und nicht nach Tagen zählen sollten. "[23]


Namen von Monaten [ edit ]


Beide sind der syrische Kalender Die in den arabischsprachigen Ländern des fruchtbaren Halbmondes und im modernen assyrischen Kalender verwendeten Namen teilen viele der Namen mit dem hebräischen Kalender seit Monaten, wie Nisan, Iyyar, Tammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri und Adar, was auf einen gemeinsamen Ursprung schließen lässt. [17] Als Ursprung wird der babylonische Kalender angenommen. [17] Der moderne türkische Kalender enthält die Namen Şubat (Februar), Nisan (April), Temmuz (Juli) und Eylul (September). Der frühere Name für Oktober war Tesrin.

Babylonisches Exil

Das jüdische Volk verließ Babylon und lebte um 586 v. Chr. Wieder in Judäa. Zu dieser Zeit nahmen sie die babylonischen Namen für die Monate an. Der babylonische Kalender entstammt direkt dem sumerischen Kalender. [24]

Biblische Hinweise auf den vorexilischen Kalender enthalten zehn Monate, die nicht durch den Namen, sondern durch die Nummer gekennzeichnet sind. In Teilen des Thora-Teils Noach ("Noah") (insbesondere Gen 7:11, 8: 3–4, 8: 13–14) wird impliziert, dass die Monate dreißig Tage lang sind. [19659096] Es gibt auch Hinweise darauf, dass der Jahreszyklus zwölf Monate betrug (1 Könige 4: 7, 1 Chronik 27: 1–15). Vor dem babylonischen Exil werden im Tanach nur vier Monate Namen genannt:


Es wird angenommen, dass es sich bei allen um kanaanitische Namen handelt. [26] Diese Namen werden nur im Zusammenhang mit dem Bau des ersten Tempels erwähnt. Håkan Ulfgard schlägt vor, dass die Verwendung von selten verwendeten Canaanite-Namen (oder im Fall von Ethanim, vielleicht nordwestlich-semitischen) Namen "den Autor als bewußt archaisierende Terminologie verwendet und so den Eindruck einer alten Geschichte vermittelt ...". [27]

In einem regulären (19459014] kesidran ) Jahr hat Marcheshvan 29 Tage und Kislev 30 Tage. Wegen der Aufschubregeln für Rosh Hashanah (siehe unten) kann Kislev jedoch einen Tag verlieren, um 29 Tage zu haben, und das Jahr wird als kurzes ( chaser ) Jahr bezeichnet, oder Marcheshvan erhält möglicherweise einen zusätzlichen Tag 30 Tage, und das Jahr wird als volles ( maleh ) Jahr bezeichnet. Die Kalenderregeln wurden entwickelt, um sicherzustellen, dass Rosh Hashanah nicht auf einen Sonntag, Mittwoch oder Freitag fällt. Damit soll sichergestellt werden, dass Jom Kippur dem Schabbat nicht direkt vorangeht oder folgt, was praktische Schwierigkeiten verursachen würde, und dass Hoshana Rabbah sich nicht am Schabbat befindet. In diesem Fall würden bestimmte Zeremonien für ein Jahr verloren gehen.


Schaltmonate [ edit ]


Das Sonnenjahr ist etwa elf Tage länger als zwölf Mondmonate. Die Bibel erwähnt nicht direkt die Hinzufügung von "embolismic" oder intercalary Monaten. Ohne die Einführung von Embolienmonaten würden sich jüdische Feste jedoch allmählich außerhalb der von der Thora geforderten Jahreszeiten verschieben. Dies wurde als Voraussetzung für die Einfügung von Embolienmonaten angesehen, um die Mondzyklen mit den Jahreszeiten in Einklang zu bringen, die für Sonnenjahreszyklen unabdingbar sind.

Als die Beobachtungsform des Kalenders verwendet wurde, hing es davon ab, ob nach dem "letzten Monat" (Adar) ein Emboliemonat angekündigt wurde oder nicht, von 'aviv [i.e., the ripeness of barley]Baumobst und Äquinoktikum. Aus zwei Gründen sollte es interkaliert werden, aber nicht auf einen von ihnen allein. [16] Es kann bemerkt werden, dass in der Bibel der Name des ersten Monats Aviv wörtlich "Frühling" bedeutet. Wenn also Adar vorbei war und der Frühling noch nicht da war, wurde ein weiterer Monat beobachtet.

Traditionell sind für die babylonischen und hebräischen lunisolaren Kalender die Jahre 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17 und 19 die langen (13 Monate) Jahre des metonischen Zyklus. Dieser Zyklus bildet die Grundlage des christlichen Kirchenkalenders und des hebräischen Kalenders und wird jedes Jahr zur Berechnung des Osterdatums verwendet

Während der Schaltjahre wird Adar I (oder Adar Aleph - "erster Adar") vor dem regulären Adar hinzugefügt. Adar I gilt eigentlich als der zusätzliche Monat und hat 30 Tage. Adar II (oder Adar Bet - "second Adar") ist der "echte" Adar und hat die üblichen 29 Tage. Aus diesem Grund werden Feiertage wie Purim in Adar II und nicht in Adar I beobachtet.


Konstellationen [ edit ]



Die Chronologie war eine Hauptüberlegung bei der Erforschung der Astronomie bei den Juden; Die heilige Zeit beruhte auf den Zyklen von Sonne und Mond. Der Talmud identifizierte die zwölf Sternbilder des Tierkreises mit den zwölf Monaten des hebräischen Kalenders. [ Zitat benötigt ] Die Übereinstimmung der Sternbilder mit ihren Namen in Hebräisch und den Monaten ist wie folgt :


  1. Widder - Taleh - Nisan

  2. Stier - Shor - Iyar

  3. Zwillinge - Teomim - Sivan

  4. Krebs - Sartan - Tammuz

  5. Löwe - Arye - Av

  6. Jungfrau - Betulah - Elul

  7. ] Waage - Moznayim - Tishrei

  8. Skorpion - 'Akrab - Marcheshvan

  9. Schütze - Keshet - Kislev

  10. Steinbock - Gdi - Tevet

  11. Wassermann - Dli - Schewat

  12. Pisces - Dagim - Adoray Einige Gelehrte identifizierten die 12 Tierkreiszeichen bei den 12 Söhnen Jakobs / 12 Stämmen Israels. [28]
    Es sei darauf hingewiesen, dass die 12 Mondmonate des hebräischen Kalenders die normalen Monate vom Neumond bis zum Neumond sind: das Jahr enthält normalerweise zwölf Monate im Durchschnitt jeweils 29,52 Tage. Die Abweichung im Vergleich zum mittleren synodischen Monat von 29,53 Tagen ist darauf zurückzuführen, dass Adar I in einem Schaltjahr immer dreißig Tage hatte. Dies bedeutet, dass das Kalenderjahr normalerweise 354 Tage enthält.





    • Dieses Jahr hat 385 Tage,
      macht es zu einem vollen Jahr.


    • In 5779 ist Rosh Hashanah am Montag,
      während Pessach am Samstag ist.


    Laut ] Machzor Gadol, ein 28-jähriger Sonnenzyklus, der zur Berechnung des Datums für das Rezitieren von Birkat Hachama verwendet wurde, ein Segen für die Sonne:



    Jahre [ ]


    The Hebrew Das Kalenderjahr beginnt üblicherweise auf Rosh Hashanah. Andere Daten dienen jedoch zu Beginn des Jahres für verschiedene religiöse Zwecke.

    Es gibt drei Qualitäten, die ein Jahr von einem anderen unterscheiden: Ob es sich um ein Schaltjahr oder ein gemeinsames Jahr handelt, an welchen von vier zulässigen Wochentagen das Jahr beginnt und ob es ein fehlerhaftes, regelmäßiges oder vollständiges Jahr ist . Mathematisch gibt es 24 (2 × 4 × 3) mögliche Kombinationen, von denen jedoch nur 14 gültig sind. Jedes dieser Muster wird keviyah (hebräisches Hebräisch für "eine Einstellung" oder "ein etabliertes Ding") genannt und ist als eine Serie von zwei oder drei hebräischen Buchstaben kodiert. Siehe vier Tore.

    Auf Hebräisch gibt es zwei gebräuchliche Schreibweisen für die Jahreszahl: mit Tausenden, die als לפרט גדול bezeichnet wurden ("Hauptzeitalter"), und ohne die Tausenden, die לפרט genannt wurden 1945 ("Nebenzeit"). Daher wird das laufende Jahr als ה'תשע"ט (5779) unter Verwendung der "Hauptzeit" und תשע"ט (779) unter Verwendung der "Nebenzeit" geschrieben.


    Anno Mundi [ edit ]



    Der Bezugspunkt des jüdischen Kalenders wird traditionell auf etwa ein Jahr vor der Gründung der Welt gehalten 1178 n. Chr. Schrieb Maimonides in Mishneh Torah Mondheiligung (11.16), dass er die Epoche gewählt habe, aus der die Berechnungen aller Daten als "dritter Tag" gelten sollten Nisan in diesem gegenwärtigen Jahr ... das ist das Jahr 4938 der Schaffung der Welt "(22. März 1178). [29] Er enthielt alle Regeln für den berechneten Kalender und seine biblische Grundlage, einschließlich des modernen Epochenjahres in seine Arbeit und beginnende formale Verwendung der Ära anno mundi . Ab dem elften Jahrhundert anno mundi dominierte die Datierung in den meisten jüdischen Gemeinden der Welt. [30][31] [ benötigte Seite ] Heute werden die Regeln in Maimonides 'kalendrischem Code beschrieben sind in der Regel von jüdischen Gemeinden in der ganzen Welt verwendet.

    Seit der Kodifizierung durch Maimonides im Jahr 1178 verwendet der jüdische Kalender die Anno-Mundi-Epoche (lateinisch für "im Jahr der Welt"), abgekürzt AM oder AM Hebräisch לבריאת העולם ), manchmal auch als "hebräische Ära" bezeichnet, um es von anderen Systemen zu unterscheiden, die auf Berechnungen der Schöpfung basieren, beispielsweise dem byzantinischen Kalender.

    Im Talmud gibt es auch Hinweise auf Jahre seit der Gründung aufgrund der Berechnung in Seder Olam Rabbah des Rabbiners Jose Ben Halafta um 160 n. Chr. [32] Masoretic Text, Adam wurde 3760 v. Chr. Gegründet und später von dem muslimischen Chronologen al-Biruni als 3448 Jahre vor der Seleukiden-Ära bestätigt. [33] Ein Beispiel ist der c. Baraita von Samuel aus dem 8. Jahrhundert.

    Nach rabbinischer Einschätzung ist der Beginn von "Jahr 1" nicht Creation, sondern etwa ein Jahr vor der Creation, wobei der Neumond seines ersten Monats (Tishrei) molad genannt wird tohu (der mittlere Neumond des Chaos oder nichts). Die Epoche des jüdischen Kalenders (Bezugsdatum), 1 Tishrei AM 1, entspricht im proleptischen julianischen Kalender dem Montag, 7. Oktober 3761 v. Chr. / BCE, dem äquivalenten tabellarischen Datum (gleiche Tageslichtperiode) und liegt etwa ein Jahr vor das traditionelle jüdische Schöpfungsdatum am 25. Elul AM 1, basierend auf dem Seder Olam Rabbah . [34] So addierte man 3760 vor Rosh Hashanah oder 3761 nach einer julianischen Jahreszahl ab 1 CE ( AD 1) ergibt das hebräische Jahr. Für frühere Jahre kann es eine Diskrepanz geben [see: Missing years (Jewish calendar)].

    Der Seder Olam Rabbah erkannte auch die Bedeutung der Jubiläums- und Sabbatical-Zyklen als langfristiges Kalendersystem an und versuchte an verschiedenen Orten, die Sabbatical- und Jubilee-Jahre in sein chronologisches Schema einzuordnen.

    Gelegentlich wird Anno Mundi als Anno Hebraico (AH) bezeichnet, [35] obwohl dies für das islamische Hijri-Jahr einer Verwechslung mit der Notation unterliegt.


    Frühere Systeme [ edit ]


    Vor der Einführung des aktuellen AM-Jahres-Nummerierungssystems wurden andere Systeme verwendet. In früheren Zeiten wurden die Jahre von einem bedeutenden historischen Ereignis gezählt. (z. B. 1. Könige 6: 1) In der Zeit der Monarchie war es in Westasien weit verbreitet, die Zahlen der Epochen gemäß dem Beitrittsjahr des Monarchen des betreffenden Landes zu verwenden. Dieser Praxis folgten auch das Vereinigte Königreich Israel (z. B. 1 Kön 14,25), das Königreich Juda (z. B. 2 Könige 18:13), das Königreich Israel (z. B. 2 Könige 17: 6), Persien (z , Nehemia 2: 1) und andere. Außerdem koordinierte der Autor der Könige Daten in den beiden Königreichen, indem er das Beitrittsjahr eines Monarchen im Hinblick auf das Jahr des Monarchen des anderen Königreichs angab (z. B. 2 Könige 8:16), obwohl einige Kommentatoren dies bemerken nicht immer synchronisieren. [36] Andere Zeitdatensysteme wurden zu anderen Zeiten verwendet. Zum Beispiel zählten jüdische Gemeinden in der babylonischen Diaspora die Jahre nach der ersten Deportation aus Israel, die von Jojachin im Jahr 597 v. Chr. (Z. B. Ezechiel 1: 1-2). Das Zeitalter wurde dann als "Jahr der Gefangenschaft Jojachins" bezeichnet. (z. B. 2 Könige 25:27)

    In der hellenistischen Makkabäerzeit wurde zumindest in der griechisch geprägten Gegend Israels die Zeit der Seleukiden-Ära gezählt. Die Bücher der Makkabäer verwendeten ausschließlich die Seleucid-Ära (z. B. 1 Makkabäer 1:54, 6:20, 7: 1, 9: 3, 10: 1). In der römischen Zeit verwendete Josephus auch ausschließlich die Seleukidenzeit. In der talmudischen Zeit, vom 1. bis zum 10. Jahrhundert, war das Zentrum des Weltjudentums im Nahen Osten, hauptsächlich in den Talmudischen Akademien des Irak und Palästinas. Juden in diesen Regionen benutzten die Datierung aus der Seleukidenzeit (auch als "Ära der Verträge" bekannt). [30] Die Avodah Zarah besagt:


    Rav Aha geb. Jakob stellte dann die Frage: Woher wissen wir, dass unsere Ära [of Documents] überhaupt mit dem Königreich Griechenland zusammenhängt? Warum sagen Sie nicht, dass es aus dem Auszug aus Ägypten stammt, die ersten tausend Jahre wegzulassen und die Jahre der nächsten tausend zu geben? In diesem Fall ist das Dokument wirklich nach datiert!
    Sagte Rav Nahman: In der Diaspora wird nur die griechische Ära verwendet. Er [the questioner] meinte, Rav Nahman wollte ihn trotzdem besiegen, aber als er gründlich studierte, stellte er fest, dass es tatsächlich gelehrt wird [in a Baraita]: In der Diaspora wird nur die griechische Ära verwendet. [37]


    Der Gebrauch von Die Ära der Dokumente (dh der Seleukidenzeit) dauerte bis in das 16. Jahrhundert hinein und wurde auch im 19. Jahrhundert von den Juden im Jemen eingesetzt. [38]

    Gelegentlich in talmudischen Schriften Es wurde auf andere Anknüpfungspunkte für Epochen verwiesen, z. B. auf die Zeit der Zerstörung aus der Ära der Ära der Zerstörung (19659167). Dies ist die Anzahl von Jahren seit der Zerstörung des Zweiten Tempels um 70 n. Im 8. und 9. Jahrhundert, als sich das Zentrum des jüdischen Lebens von Babylonien nach Europa bewegte, wurde das Zählen der Seleukiden-Ära "bedeutungslos". [30] Es gibt Hinweise, dass die Juden des Rheinlandes im frühen Mittelalter die "Jahre danach" benutzten die Zerstörung des Tempels "(zB Mainzer Unbekannter).


    Neues Jahr [ edit ]


    Ein Shofar aus einem Widderhorn wird traditionell unter Beachtung von Rosh Hashanah, dem Beginn des jüdischen bürgerlichen Jahres, geblasen.

    Exodus 12: 2 und Deut 16: 1 setzen Aviv (jetzt Nisan) als "den ersten Monat" ein:


    Dieser Monat soll euch Anfang der Monate sein; Es ist der erste Monat des Jahres für Sie.

    Nisan 1 wird als kirchliches neues Jahr bezeichnet.

    Im alten Israel wurde der Beginn des kirchlichen neuen Jahres für die Zählung von Monaten und Festen (d. H. Nisan) unter Bezugnahme auf Passahfest festgelegt. Das Passahfest ist am 15. Nisan (3. Mose 23: 4-6), was dem Vollmond des Nisan entspricht. As Passover is a spring festival, it should fall on a full moon day around, and normally just after, the vernal (northward) equinox. If the twelfth full moon after the previous Passover is too early compared to the equinox, a leap month is inserted near the end of the previous year before the new year is set to begin. According to normative Judaism, the verses in Exodus 12:1–2 require that the months be determined by a proper court with the necessary authority to sanctify the months. Hence the court, not the astronomy, has the final decision.[39]

    According to some Christian and Karaite sources, the tradition in ancient Israel was that 1 Nisan would not start until the barley is ripe, being the test for the onset of spring.[40] If the barley was not ripe, an intercalary month would be added before Nisan.

    The day most commonly referred to as the "New Year" is 1 Tishrei, which actually begins in the seventh month of the ecclesiastical year. On that day the formal New Year for the counting of years (such as Shmita and Yovel), Rosh Hashanah ("head of the year") is observed. (see Ezekiel 40:1, which uses the phrase "beginning of the year".) This is the civil new yearand the date on which the year number advances. Certain agricultural practices are also marked from this date.[41]

    In the 1st century, Josephus stated that while –


    Moses...appointed Nisan...as the first month for the festivals...the commencement of the year for everything relating to divine worship, but for selling and buying and other ordinary affairs he preserved the ancient order [i. e. the year beginning with Tishrei]."[42]


    Edwin Thiele has concluded that the ancient northern Kingdom of Israel counted years using the ecclesiastical new year starting on 1 Aviv (Nisan), while the southern Kingdom of Judah counted years using the civil new year starting on 1 Tishrei.[36] The practice of the Kingdom of Israel was also that of Babylon,[43] as well as other countries of the region.[17] The practice of Judah is still followed.

    In fact the Jewish calendar has a multiplicity of new years for different purposes. The use of these dates has been in use for a long time. The use of multiple starting dates for a year is comparable to different starting dates for civil "calendar years", "tax or fiscal years", "academic years", "religious cycles", etc. By the time of the redaction of the MishnahRosh Hashanah 1:1 (c. 200 CE), jurists had identified four new-year dates:


    The 1st of Nisan is the new year for kings and feasts; the 1st of Elul is the new year for the tithe of cattle... the 1st of Tishri is the new year for years, of the years of release and jubilee years, for the planting and for vegetables; and the 1st of Shevat is the new year for trees—so the school of Shammai; and the school of Hillel say: On the 15th thereof.[44]


    The month of Elul is the new year for counting animal tithes (ma'aser behemah). Tu Bishvat ("the 15th of Shevat") marks the new year for trees (and agricultural tithes).

    For the dates of the Jewish New Year see Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050 or calculate using the section "Conversion between Jewish and civil calendars".


    Leap years[edit]


    The Jewish calendar is based on the Metonic cycle of 19 years, of which 12 are common (non-leap) years of 12 months and 7 are leap years of 13 months. To determine whether a Jewish year is a leap year, one must find its position in the 19-year Metonic cycle. This position is calculated by dividing the Jewish year number by 19 and finding the remainder. (Since there is no year 0, a remainder of 0 indicates that the year is year 19 of the cycle.) For example, the Jewish year 5779 divided by 19 results in a remainder of 3, indicating that it is year 3 of the Metonic cycle. [45]

    Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 of the Metonic cycle are leap years. To assist in remembering this sequence, some people use the mnemonic Hebrew word GUCHADZaT "גוחאדז"ט"‬, where the Hebrew letters gimel-vav-het aleph-dalet-zayin-tet are used as Hebrew numerals equivalent to 3, 6, 8, 1, 4, 7, 9. The keviyah records whether the year is leap or common: פ for peshuta (פשוטה), meaning simple and indicating a common year, and מ indicating a leap year (me'uberet, מעוברת).[46]

    Another memory aid notes that intervals of the major scale follow the same pattern as do Jewish leap years, with do corresponding to year 19 (or 0): a whole step in the scale corresponds to two common years between consecutive leap years, and a half step to one common year between two leap years. This connection with the major scale is more plain in the context of 19 equal temperament: counting the tonic as 0, the notes of the major scale in 19 equal temperament are numbers 0 (or 19), 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, the same numbers as the leap years in the Hebrew calendar.

    A simple rule for determining whether a year is a leap year has been given above. However, there is another rule which not only tells whether the year is leap but also gives the fraction of a month by which the calendar is behind the seasons, useful for agricultural purposes. To determine whether year n of the calendar is a leap year, find the remainder on dividing [(7 × n) + 1] by 19. If the remainder is 6 or less it is a leap year; if it is 7 or more it is not. For example, the remainder on dividing [(7 × 5779) + 1] by 19 is 3, so the year 5779 is a leap year. The remainder on dividing [(7 × 5780) + 1] by 19 is 10, so the year 5780 is not a leap year.[47] This works because as there are seven leap years in nineteen years the difference between the solar and lunar years increases by 7/19-month per year. When the difference goes above 18/19-month this signifies a leap year, and the difference is reduced by one month.


    Rosh Hashanah postponement rules[edit]


















    Day of week
    Number of days
    Monday353
    355383
    385
    Tuesday
    354

    384
    Thursday
    354355383
    385
    Saturday353
    355383
    385

    To calculate the day on which Rosh Hashanah of a given year will fall, it is necessary first to calculate the expected molad (moment of lunar conjunction or new moon) of Tishrei in that year, and then to apply a set of rules to determine whether the first day of the year must be postponed. The molad can be calculated by multiplying the number of months that will have elapsed since some (preceding) molad whose weekday is known by the mean length of a (synodic) lunar month, which is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts (there are 1080 "parts" in an hour, so that one part is equal to 3​13 seconds). The very first molad, the molad tohu, fell on Sunday evening at 11.11​13or in Jewish terms Day 2, 5 hours, and 204 parts.

    In calculating the number of months that will have passed since the known molad that one uses as the starting point, one must remember to include any leap months that falls within the elapsed interval, according to the cycle of leap years. A 19-year cycle of 235 synodic months has 991 weeks 2 days 16 hours 595 parts, a common year of 12 synodic months has 50 weeks 4 days 8 hours 876 parts, while a leap year of 13 synodic months has 54 weeks 5 days 21 hours 589 parts.

    The two months whose numbers of days may be adjusted, Marcheshvan and Kislev, are the eighth and ninth months of the Hebrew year, whereas Tishrei is the seventh month (in the traditional counting of the months, even though it is the first month of a new calendar year). Any adjustments needed to postpone Rosh Hashanah must be made to the adjustable months in the year that precedes the year of which the Rosh Hashanah will be the first day.

    Just four potential conditions are considered to determine whether the date of Rosh Hashanah must be postponed. These are called the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, or deḥiyyot:[48][49][50][51][52]


    • If the molad occurs at or later than noon, Rosh Hashanah is postponed a day. This is called deḥiyyah molad zaken (literally, "old birth", i.e., late new moon).

    • If the molad occurs on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, Rosh Hashanah is postponed a day. If the application of deḥiyyah molad zaken would place Rosh Hashanah on one of these days, then it must be postponed a second day. This is called deḥiyyah lo ADU, an acronym that means "not [weekday] one, four, or six."

    The first of these rules (deḥiyyah molad zaken) is referred to in the Talmud.[20] Nowadays, molad zaken is used as a device to prevent the molad falling on the second day of the month.[53] The second rule, (deḥiyyah lo ADU), is applied for religious reasons.

    Another two rules are applied much less frequently and serve to prevent impermissible year lengths. Their names are Hebrew acronyms that refer to the ways they are calculated:


    • If the molad in a common year falls on a Tuesday after 9 hours and 204 parts, Rosh Hashanah is postponed to Thursday. This is deḥiyyah GaTaRaDwhere the acronym stands for "3 [Tuesday]9, 204."

    • If the molad following a leap year falls on a Monday, more than 15 hours and 589 parts after the Hebrew day began (for calculation purposes, this is taken to be 6 pm Sunday), Rosh Hashanah is postponed to Tuesday. This is deḥiyyah BeTUTeKaPoT, where the acronym stands for "2 [Monday]15, 589."

    At the innovation of the sages, the calendar was arranged to ensure that Yom Kippur would not fall on a Friday or Sunday, and Hoshana Rabbah would not fall on Shabbat.[54] These rules have been instituted because Shabbat restrictions also apply to Yom Kippur, so that if Yom Kippur were to fall on Friday, it would not be possible to make necessary preparations for Shabbat (such as candle lighting). Similarly, if Yom Kippur fell on a Sunday, it would not be possible to make preparations for Yom Kippur because the preceding day is Shabbat.[55] Additionally, the laws of Shabbat override those of Hoshana Rabbah, so that if Hoshana Rabbah were to fall on Shabbat certain rituals that are a part of the Hoshana Rabbah service (such as carrying willows, which is a form of work) could not be performed.[56]

    To prevent Yom Kippur (10 Tishrei) from falling on a Friday or Sunday, Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei) cannot fall on Wednesday or Friday. Likewise, to prevent Hoshana Rabbah (21 Tishrei) from falling on a Saturday, Rosh Hashanah cannot fall on a Sunday. This leaves only four days on which Rosh Hashanah can fall: Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, which are referred to as the "four gates". Each day is associated with a number (its order in the week, beginning with Sunday as day 1). Numbers in Hebrew have been traditionally denominated by Hebrew letters. Thus the keviyah uses the letters ה ,ג ,ב and ז (representing 2, 3, 5, and 7, for Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday) to denote the starting day of the year.


    Deficient, regular, and complete years[edit]


    The postponement of the year is compensated for by adding a day to the second month or removing one from the third month. A Jewish common year can only have 353, 354, or 355 days. A leap year is always 30 days longer, and so can have 383, 384, or 385 days.


    • A chaserah year (Hebrew for "deficient" or "incomplete") is 353 or 383 days long. Both Cheshvan and Kislev have 29 days. The Hebrew letter ח "het" is used in the keviyah.

    • A kesidrah year ("regular" or "in-order") is 354 or 384 days long. Cheshvan has 29 days while Kislev has 30 days. The Hebrew letter כ "kaf" is used in the keviyah.

    • A shlemah year ("complete" or "perfect", also "abundant") is 355 or 385 days long. Both Cheshvan and Kislev have 30 days. The Hebrew letter ש "shin" is used in the keviyah.

    Whether a year is deficient, regular, or complete is determined by the time between two adjacent Rosh Hashanah observances and the leap year. While the keviyah is sufficient to describe a year, a variant specifies the day of the week for the first day of Pesach (Passover) in lieu of the year length.

    A Metonic cycle equates to 235 lunar months in each 19-year cycle. This gives an average of 6939 days, 16 hours, and 595 parts for each cycle. But due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules (preceding section) a cycle of 19 Jewish years can be either 6939, 6940, 6941, or 6942 days in duration. Since none of these values is evenly divisible by seven, the Jewish calendar repeats exactly only following 36,288 Metonic cycles, or 689,472 Jewish years. There is a near-repetition every 247 years, except for an excess of about 50 minutes (905 parts).


    Four gates[edit]


    The annual calendar of a numbered Hebrew year, displayed as 12 or 13 months partitioned into weeks, can be determined by consulting the table of Four gates, whose inputs are the year's position in the 19-year cycle and its molad Tishrei. The resulting type (keviyah) of the desired year in the body of the table is a triple consisting of two numbers and a letter (written left-to-right in English). The left number of each triple is the day of the week of 1 TishreiRosh Hashanah (2 3 5 7); the letter indicates whether that year is deficient (D), regular (R), or complete (C), the number of days in Chesvan and Kislev; while the right number of each triple is the day of the week of 15 Nisanthe first day of Passover or Pesach (1 3 5 7)within the same Hebrew year (next Julian/Gregorian year). The keviyah in Hebrew letters are written right-to-left, so their days of the week are reversed, the right number for 1 Tishrei and the left for 15 Nisan. The year within the 19-year cycle alone determines whether that year has one or two Adars.[57][58][59][60][61]

    This table numbers the days of the week and hours for the limits of molad Tishrei in the Hebrew manner for calendrical calculations, that is, both begin at 6 pmthus 7d 18h 0p is noon Saturday. The years of a 19-year cycle are organized into four groups: common years after a leap year but before a common year (1 4 9 12 15); common years between two leap years (7 18); common years after a common year but before a leap year (2 5 10 13 16); and leap years (3 6 8 11 14 17 19)all between common years. The oldest surviving table of Four gates was written by Saadia Gaon (892–942). It is so named because it identifies the four allowable days of the week on which 1 Tishrei can occur.

    Comparing the days of the week of molad Tishrei with those in the keviyah shows that during 39% of years 1 Tishrei is not postponed beyond the day of the week of its molad Tishrei, 47% are postponed one day, and 14% are postponed two days. This table also identifies the seven types of common years and seven types of leap years. Most are represented in any 19-year cycle, except one or two may be in neighboring cycles. The most likely type of year is 5R7 in 18.1% of years, whereas the least likely is 5C1 in 3.3% of years. The day of the week of 15 Nisan is later than that of 1 Tishrei by one, two or three days for common years and three, four or five days for leap years in deficient, regular or complete years, respectively.















































    Four gates
    molad
    Tishrei ≥
    Year of 19-year cycle
    1 4 9 12 15
    7 18
    2 5 10 13 16
    3 6 8 11 14 17 19
    7d 18h 0p

    2D3   בחג

    2D5   בחה
    1d 9h 204p

     
    1d 20h 491p

    2C5   בשה

    2C7   בשז
    2d 15h 589p


     
    2d 18h 0p

    3R5   גכה

    3R7   גכז
    3d 9h 204p

    5R7   הכז

     
    3d 18h 0p
    5D1   החא
    4d 11h 695p
     
    5d 9h 204p

    5C1   השא

    5C3   השג
    5d 18h 0p


     
    6d 0h 408p

    7D1   זחא

    7D3   זחג
    6d 9h 204p


     
    6d 20h 491p
    7C3   זשג

    7C5   זשה

    Holidays[edit]


    See Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050


    History[edit]


    Mishnaic period[edit]



    The Tanakh contains several commandments related to the keeping of the calendar and the lunar cycle, and records changes that have taken place to the Hebrew calendar.

    It has been noted that the procedures described in the Mishnah and Tosefta are all plausible procedures for regulating an empirical lunar calendar.[62] Fire-signals, for example, or smoke-signals, are known from the pre-exilic Lachish ostraca.[63] Furthermore, the Mishnah contains laws that reflect the uncertainties of an empirical calendar. Mishnah Sanhedrin, for example, holds that when one witness holds that an event took place on a certain day of the month, and another that the same event took place on the following day, their testimony can be held to agree, since the length of the preceding month was uncertain.[64] Another Mishnah takes it for granted that it cannot be known in advance whether a year's lease is for twelve or thirteen months.[65] Hence it is a reasonable conclusion that the Mishnaic calendar was actually used in the Mishnaic period.

    The accuracy of the Mishnah's claim that the Mishnaic calendar was also used in the late Second Temple period is less certain. One scholar has noted that there are no laws from Second Temple period sources that indicate any doubts about the length of a month or of a year. This led him to propose that the priests must have had some form of computed calendar or calendrical rules that allowed them to know in advance whether a month would have 30 or 29 days, and whether a year would have 12 or 13 months.[66]


    Modern calendar[edit]


    The Arch of Titus depicting the objects from the Temple being carried through Rome.

    Between 70 and 1178 CE, the observation-based calendar was gradually replaced by a mathematically calculated one.[67] Except for the epoch year number, the calendar rules reached their current form by the beginning of the 9th century, as described by the Persian Muslim astronomer al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850 CE) in 823.[68][69]

    One notable difference between the calendar of that era and the modern form was the date of the epoch (the fixed reference point at the beginning of year 1), which at that time was one year later than the epoch of the modern calendar.

    Most of the present rules of the calendar were in place by 823, according to a treatise by al-Khwarizmi. Al-Khwarizmi's study of the Jewish calendar, Risāla fi istikhrāj taʾrīkh al-yahūd "Extraction of the Jewish Era" describes the 19-year intercalation cycle, the rules for determining on what day of the week the first day of the month Tishrī shall fall, the interval between the Jewish era (creation of Adam) and the Seleucid era, and the rules for determining the mean longitude of the sun and the moon using the Jewish calendar.[68][69] Not all the rules were in place by 835.[70]

    In 921, Aaron ben Meïr proposed changes to the calendar. Though the proposals were rejected, they indicate that all of the rules of the modern calendar (except for the epoch) were in place before that date. In 1000, the Muslim chronologist al-Biruni described all of the modern rules of the Hebrew calendar, except that he specified three different epochs used by various Jewish communities being one, two, or three years later than the modern epoch.[33]

    There is a tradition, first mentioned by Hai Gaon (died 1038 CE), that Hillel b. R. Yehuda "in the year 670 of the Seleucid era" (i.e., 358–359 CE) was responsible for the new calculated calendar with a fixed intercalation cycle. Later writers, such as Nachmanides, explained Hai Gaon's words to mean that the entire computed calendar was due to Hillel b. Yehuda in response to persecution of Jews. Maimonides, in the 12th century, stated that the Mishnaic calendar was used "until the days of Abaye and Rava", who flourished c. 320–350 CE, and that the change came when "the land of Israel was destroyed, and no permanent court was left." Taken together, these two traditions suggest that Hillel b. Yehuda (whom they identify with the mid-4th-century Jewish patriarch Ioulos, attested in a letter of the Emperor Julian,[71] and the Jewish patriarch Ellel, mentioned by Epiphanius[72]) instituted the computed Hebrew calendar because of persecution. H. Graetz[73] linked the introduction of the computed calendar to a sharp repression following a failed Jewish insurrection that occurred during the rule of the Christian emperor Constantius and Gallus. A later writer, S. Lieberman, argued[74] instead that the introduction of the fixed calendar was due to measures taken by Christian Roman authorities to prevent the Jewish patriarch from sending calendrical messengers.

    Both the tradition that Hillel b. Yehuda instituted the complete computed calendar, and the theory that the computed calendar was introduced due to repression or persecution, have been questioned.[75][76][77] Furthermore, two Jewish dates during post-Talmudic times (specifically in 506 and 776) are impossible under the rules of the modern calendar, indicating that its arithmetic rules were developed in Babylonia during the times of the Geonim (7th to 8th centuries).[78] The Babylonian rules required the delay of the first day of Tishrei when the new moon occurred after noon.[citation needed]

    The Talmuds do, however, indicate at least the beginnings of a transition from a purely empirical to a computed calendar. According to a statement attributed to Yose, an Amora who lived during the second half of the 3rd century, the feast of Purim, 14 Adar, could not fall on a Sabbath nor a Monday, lest 10 Tishrei (Yom Kippur) fall on a Friday or a Sunday.[79] This indicates that, by the time of the redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud (c. 400 CE), there were a fixed number of days in all months from Adar to Elul, also implying that the extra month was already a second Adar added before the regular Adar. In another passage, a sage is reported to have counseled "those who make the computations" not to set the first day of Tishrei or the Day of the Willow on the sabbath.[80] This indicates that there was a group who "made computations" and were in a position to control, to some extent, the day of the week on which Rosh Hashanah would fall.


    Observance in Auschwitz[edit]


    While imprisoned in Auschwitz, Jews made every effort to observe Jewish tradition in the camps, despite the monumental dangers in doing so. The Hebrew calendar, which is a tradition with great importance to Jewish practice and rituals was particularly dangerous since no tools of telling of time, such as watches and calendars were permitted in the camps.[81] The keeping of a Hebrew calendar was a rarity amongst prisoners and there are only two known surviving calendars that were made in Auschwitz, both of which were made by women.[81] Before this, the tradition of making a Hebrew calendar was greatly assumed to be the job of a man in Jewish society.[81]


    Usage in contemporary Israel[edit]


    Early Zionist pioneers were impressed by the fact that the calendar preserved by Jews over many centuries in far-flung diasporas, as a matter of religious ritual, was geared to the climate of their original country: the Jewish New Year marks the transition from the dry season to the rainy one, and major Jewish holidays such as Sukkot, Passover, and Shavuot correspond to major points of the country's agricultural year such as planting and harvest.

    Accordingly, in the early 20th century the Hebrew calendar was re-interpreted as an agricultural rather than religious calendar.

    After the creation of the State of Israel, the Hebrew calendar became one of the official calendars of Israel, along with the Gregorian calendar. Holidays and commemorations not derived from previous Jewish tradition were to be fixed according to the Hebrew calendar date. For example, the Israeli Independence Day falls on 5 Iyar, Jerusalem Reunification Day on 28 Iyar, Yom HaAliyah on 10 Nisan, and the Holocaust Commemoration Day on 27 Nisan.

    Nevertheless, since the 1950s usage of the Hebrew calendar has steadily declined, in favor of the Gregorian calendar. At present, Israelis—except for the religiously observant—conduct their private and public life according to the Gregorian calendar, although the Hebrew calendar is still widely acknowledged, appearing in public venues such as banks (where it is legal for use on cheques and other documents, though only rarely do people make use of this option) and on the mastheads of newspapers.

    The Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah) is a two-day public holiday in Israel. However, since the 1980s an increasing number of secular Israelis celebrate the Gregorian New Year (usually known as "Silvester Night"—"ליל סילבסטר") on the night between 31 December and 1 January. Prominent rabbis have on several occasions sharply denounced this practice, but with no noticeable effect on the secularist celebrants.[82]

    Wall calendars commonly used in Israel are hybrids. Most are organised according to Gregorian rather than Jewish months, but begin in September, when the Jewish New Year usually falls, and provide the Jewish date in small characters.


    Other practices[edit]


    Outside of Rabbinic Judaism, evidence shows a diversity of practice.


    Karaite calendar[edit]


    Karaites use the lunar month and the solar year, but the Karaite calendar differs from the current Rabbinic calendar in a number of ways. The Karaite calendar is identical to the Rabbinic calendar used before the Sanhedrin changed the Rabbinic calendar from the lunar, observation based, calendar to the current, mathematically based, calendar used in Rabbinic Judaism today.

    In the lunar Karaite calendar, the beginning of each month, the Rosh Chodesh, can be calculated, but is confirmed by the observation in Israel of the first sightings of the new moon.[83] This may result in an occasional variation of a maximum of one day, depending on the inability to observe the new moon. The day is usually "picked up" in the next month.

    The addition of the leap month (Adar II) is determined by observing in Israel the ripening of barley at a specific stage (defined by Karaite tradition) (called aviv),[84] rather than using the calculated and fixed calendar of rabbinic Judaism. Occasionally this results in Karaites being one month ahead of other Jews using the calculated rabbinic calendar. The "lost" month would be "picked up" in the next cycle when Karaites would observe a leap month while other Jews would not.

    Furthermore, the seasonal drift of the rabbinic calendar is avoided, resulting in the years affected by the drift starting one month earlier in the Karaite calendar.

    Also, the four rules of postponement of the rabbinic calendar are not applied, since they are not mentioned in the Tanakh. This can affect the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays in a particular year by one or two days.

    In the Middle Ages many Karaite Jews outside Israel followed the calculated rabbinic calendar, because it was not possible to retrieve accurate aviv barley data from the land of Israel. However, since the establishment of the State of Israel, and especially since the Six-Day War, the Karaite Jews that have made aliyah can now again use the observational calendar.


    Samaritan calendar[edit]


    The Samaritan community's calendar also relies on lunar months and solar years. Calculation of the Samaritan calendar has historically been a secret reserved to the priestly family alone,[85] and was based on observations of the new crescent moon. More recently, a 20th-century Samaritan High Priest transferred the calculation to a computer algorithm. The current High Priest confirms the results twice a year, and then distributes calendars to the community.[86]

    The epoch of the Samaritan calendar is year of the entry of the Children of Israel into the Land of Israel with Joshua. The month of Passover is the first month in the Samaritan calendar, but the year number increments in the sixth month. Like in the Rabbinic calendar, there are seven leap years within each 19-year cycle. However, the Rabbinic and Samaritan calendars' cycles are not synchronized, so Samaritan festivals—notionally the same as the Rabbinic festivals of Torah origin—are frequently one month off from the date according to the Rabbinic calendar. Additionally, as in the Karaite calendar, the Samaritan calendar does not apply the four rules of postponement, since they are not mentioned in the Tanakh. This can affect the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays in a particular year by one or two days.[85][86]


    The Qumran calendar[edit]



    Many of the Dead Sea (Qumran) Scrolls have references to a unique calendar, used by the people there, who are often assumed to be Essenes.

    The year of this calendar used the ideal Mesopotamian calendar of twelve 30-day months, to which were added 4 days at the equinoxes and solstices (cardinal points), making a total of 364 days.

    There was some ambiguity as to whether the cardinal days were at the beginning of the months or at the end, but the clearest calendar attestations give a year of four seasons, each having three months of 30, 30, and 31 days with the cardinal day the extra day at the end, for a total of 91 days, or exactly 13 weeks. Each season started on the 4th day of the week (Wednesday), every year. (Ben-Dov, Head of All Yearspp. 16–17)

    With only 364 days, it is clear that the calendar would after a few years be very noticeably different from the actual seasons, but there is nothing to indicate what was done about this problem. Various suggestions have been made by scholars. One is that nothing was done and the calendar was allowed to change with respect to the seasons. Another suggestion is that changes were made irregularly, only when the seasonal anomaly was too great to be ignored any longer. (Ben-Dov, Head of All Yearspp. 19–20)

    The writings often discuss the moon, but the calendar was not based on the movement of the moon any more than indications of the phases of the moon on a modern western calendar indicate that that is a lunar calendar. Recent analysis of one of the last scrolls remaining to be deciphered has revealed it relates to this calendar and that the sect used the word tekufah to identify each of the four special days marking the transitions between the seasons.[87]


    Persian civil calendar[edit]


    Calendrical evidence for the postexilic Persian period is found in papyri from the Jewish colony at Elephantine, in Egypt. These documents show that the Jewish community of Elephantine used the Egyptian and Babylonian calendars.[88][89]

    The Sardica paschal table shows that the Jewish community of some eastern city, possibly Antioch, used a calendrical scheme that kept Nisan 14 within the limits of the Julian month of March.[90] Some of the dates in the document are clearly corrupt, but they can be emended to make the sixteen years in the table consistent with a regular intercalation scheme. Peter, the bishop of Alexandria (early 4th century CE), mentions that the Jews of his city "hold their Passover according to the course of the moon in the month of Phamenoth, or according to the intercalary month every third year in the month of Pharmuthi",[91] suggesting a fairly consistent intercalation scheme that kept Nisan 14 approximately between Phamenoth 10 (March 6 in the 4th century CE) and Pharmuthi 10 (April 5). Jewish funerary inscriptions from Zoar, south of the Dead Sea, dated from the 3rd to the 5th century, indicate that when years were intercalated, the intercalary month was at least sometimes a repeated month of Adar. The inscriptions, however, reveal no clear pattern of regular intercalations, nor do they indicate any consistent rule for determining the start of the lunar month.[92]

    In 1178, Maimonides included all the rules for the calculated calendar and their scriptural basis, including the modern epochal year in his work, Mishneh Torah. Today, the rules detailed in Maimonides' code are those generally used by Jewish communities throughout the world.


    Astronomical calculations[edit]


    Synodic month – the molad interval[edit]


    A "new moon" (astronomically called a lunar conjunction and, in Hebrew, a molad) is the moment at which the sun and moon are aligned horizontally with respect to a north-south line (technically, they have the same ecliptical longitude). The period between two new moons is a synodic month. The actual length of a synodic month varies from about 29 days 6 hours and 30 minutes (29.27 days) to about 29 days and 20 hours (29.83 days), a variation range of about 13 hours and 30 minutes. Accordingly, for convenience, a long-term average length, identical to the mean synodic month of ancient times (also called the molad interval) is used. The molad interval is days, or 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 "parts" (1 "part" = 1/18 minute; 3 "parts" = 10 seconds) (i.e., 29.530594 days), and is the same value determined by the Babylonians in their System B about 300 BCE[93] and was adopted by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE and by the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy in the Almagest four centuries later (who cited Hipparchus as his source). Its remarkable accuracy (less than one second from the true value) is thought to have been achieved using records of lunar eclipses from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE.[94]

    This value is as close to the correct value of 29.530589 days as it is possible for a value to come that is rounded off to whole "parts". The discrepancy makes the molad interval about 0.6 seconds too long. Put another way, if the molad is taken as the time of mean conjunction at some reference meridian, then this reference meridian is drifting slowly eastward. If this drift of the reference meridian is traced back to the mid-4th century, the traditional date of the introduction of the fixed calendar, then it is found to correspond to a longitude midway between the Nile and the end of the Euphrates. The modern molad moments match the mean solar times of the lunar conjunction moments near the meridian of Kandahar, Afghanistan, more than 30° east of Jerusalem.

    Furthermore, the discrepancy between the molad interval and the mean synodic month is accumulating at an accelerating rate, since the mean synodic month is progressively shortening due to gravitational tidal effects. Measured on a strictly uniform time scale, such as that provided by an atomic clock, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually longer, but since the tides slow Earth's rotation rate even more, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually shorter in terms of mean solar time.


    Seasonal drift[edit]


    The mean year of the current mathematically based Hebrew calendar is 365 days 5 hours 55 minutes and 25+25/57 seconds (365.2468 days) – computed as the molad/monthly interval of 29.530594 days × 235 months in a 19-year metonic cycle ÷ 19 years per cycle. In relation to the Gregorian calendar, the mean Gregorian calendar year is 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes and 12 seconds (365.2425 days), and the drift of the Hebrew calendar in relation to it is about a day every 231 years.


    Implications for Jewish ritual[edit]


    This figure, in a detail of a medieval Hebrew calendar, reminded Jews of the palm branch (Lulav), the myrtle twigs, the willow branches, and the citron (Etrog) to be held in the hand and to be brought to the synagogue during the holiday of Sukkot, which occurs in autumn.

    Although the molad of Tishrei is the only molad moment that is not ritually announced, it is actually the only one that is relevant to the Hebrew calendar, for it determines the provisional date of Rosh Hashanah, subject to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules. The other monthly molad moments are announced for mystical reasons. With the moladot on average almost 100 minutes late, this means that the molad of Tishrei lands one day later than it ought to in (100 minutes) ÷ (1440 minutes per day) = 5 of 72 years or nearly 7% of years.

    Therefore, the seemingly small drift of the moladot is already significant enough to affect the date of Rosh Hashanah, which then cascades to many other dates in the calendar year and sometimes, due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, also interacts with the dates of the prior or next year. The molad drift could be corrected by using a progressively shorter molad interval that corresponds to the actual mean lunar conjunction interval at the original molad reference meridian. Furthermore, the molad interval determines the calendar mean year, so using a progressively shorter molad interval would help correct the excessive length of the Hebrew calendar mean year, as well as helping it to "hold onto" the northward equinox for the maximum duration.

    When the 19-year intercalary cycle was finalised in the 4th century, the earliest Passover (in year 16 of the cycle) coincided with the northward equinox, which means that Passover fell near the first full moon after the northward equinox, or that the northward equinox landed within one lunation before 16 days after the molad of Nisan. This is still the case in about 80% of years; but, in about 20% of years, Passover is a month late by these criteria (as it was in AM 5765, 5768 and 5776, the 8th, 11th and 19th years of the 19-year cycle = Gregorian 2005, 2008 and 2016 CE). Presently, this occurs after the "premature" insertion of a leap month in years 8, 11, and 19 of each 19-year cycle, which causes the northward equinox to land on exceptionally early Hebrew dates in such years. This problem will get worse over time, and so beginning in AM 5817 (2057 CE), year 3 of each 19-year cycle will also be a month late. If the calendar is not amended, then Passover will start to land on or after the summer solstice around AM 16652 (12892 CE). (The exact year when this will begin to occur depends on uncertainties in the future tidal slowing of the Earth rotation rate, and on the accuracy of predictions of precession and Earth axial tilt.)

    The seriousness of the spring equinox drift is widely discounted on the grounds that Passover will remain in the spring season for many millennia, and the text of the Torah is generally not interpreted as having specified tight calendrical limits. The Hebrew calendar also drifts with respect to the autumn equinox, and at least part of the harvest festival of Sukkot is already more than a month after the equinox in years 1, 9, and 12 of each 19-year cycle; beginning in AM 5818 (2057 CE), this will also be the case in year 4. (These are the same year numbers as were mentioned for the spring season in the previous paragraph, except that they get incremented at Rosh Hashanah.) This progressively increases the probability that Sukkot will be cold and wet, making it uncomfortable or impractical to dwell in the traditional succah during Sukkot. The first winter seasonal prayer for rain is not recited until Shemini Atzeretafter the end of Sukkot, yet it is becoming increasingly likely that the rainy season in Israel will start before the end of Sukkot.

    No equinox or solstice will ever be more than a day or so away from its mean date according to the solar calendar, while nineteen Jewish years average 6939d 16h 33m 03​13s compared to the 6939d 14h 26m 15s of nineteen mean tropical years.[95] This discrepancy has mounted up to six days, which is why the earliest Passover currently falls on 26 March (as in AM 5773 / 2013 CE).


    Worked example[edit]


    Given the length of the year, the length of each month is fixed as described above, so the real problem in determining the calendar for a year is determining the number of days in the year. In the modern calendar, this is determined in the following manner.[96]

    The day of Rosh Hashanah and the length of the year are determined by the time and the day of the week of the Tishrei moladthat is, the moment of the average conjunction. Given the Tishrei molad of a certain year, the length of the year is determined as follows:

    First, one must determine whether each year is an ordinary or leap year by its position in the 19-year Metonic cycle. Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are leap years.

    Secondly, one must determine the number of days between the starting Tishrei molad (TM1) and the Tishrei molad of the next year (TM2). For calendar descriptions in general the day begins at 6 p.m., but for the purpose of determining Rosh Hashanah, a molad occurring on or after noon is treated as belonging to the next day (the first deḥiyyah).[97] All months are calculated as 29d, 12h, 44m, 3​13s long (MonLen). Therefore, in an ordinary year TM2 occurs 12 × MonLen days after TM1. This is usually 354 calendar days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after 3:11:20 a.m. and before noon, it will be 355 days. Similarly, in a leap year, TM2 occurs 13 × MonLen days after TM1. This is usually 384 days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after noon and before 2:27:16​23 p.m., TM2 will be only 383 days after TM1. In the same way, from TM2 one calculates TM3. Thus the four natural year lengths are 354, 355, 383, and 384 days.

    However, because of the holiday rules, Rosh Hashanah cannot fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, so if TM2 is one of those days, Rosh Hashanah in year 2 is postponed by adding one day to year 1 (the second deḥiyyah). To compensate, one day is subtracted from year 2. It is to allow for these adjustments that the system allows 385-day years (long leap) and 353-day years (short ordinary) besides the four natural year lengths.

    But how can year 1 be lengthened if it is already a long ordinary year of 355 days or year 2 be shortened if it is a short leap year of 383 days? That is why the third and fourth deḥiyyahs are needed.

    If year 1 is already a long ordinary year of 355 days, there will be a problem if TM1 is on a Tuesday,[98] as that means TM2 falls on a Sunday and will have to be postponed, creating a 356-day year. In this case, Rosh Hashanah in year 1 is postponed from Tuesday (the third deḥiyyah). As it cannot be postponed to Wednesday, it is postponed to Thursday, and year 1 ends up with 354 days.

    On the other hand, if year 2 is already a short year of 383 days, there will be a problem if TM2 is on a Wednesday.[99] because Rosh Hashanah in year 2 will have to be postponed from Wednesday to Thursday and this will cause year 2 to be only 382 days long. In this case, year 2 is extended by one day by postponing Rosh Hashanah in year 3 from Monday to Tuesday (the fourth deḥiyyah), and year 2 will have 383 days.


    Rectifying the Hebrew calendar[edit]


    The attribution of the fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar solely to Hillel II has, however, been questioned by a few authors, such as Sasha Stern, who claim that the calendar rules developed gradually over several centuries.[62]

    Given the importance in Jewish ritual of establishing the accurate timing of monthly and annual times, some futurist writers and researchers have considered whether a "corrected" system of establishing the Hebrew date is required. The mean year of the current mathematically based Hebrew calendar has "drifted" an average of 7–8 days late relative to the equinox relationship that it originally had. It is not possible, however, for any individual Hebrew date to be a week or more "late", because Hebrew months always begin within a day or two of the molad moment. What happens instead is that the traditional Hebrew calendar "prematurely" inserts a leap month one year before it "should have been" inserted, where "prematurely" means that the insertion causes the spring equinox to land more than 30 days before the latest acceptable moment, thus causing the calendar to run "one month late" until the time when the leap month "should have been" inserted prior to the following spring. This presently happens in 4 years out of every 19-year cycle (years 3, 8, 11, and 19), implying that the Hebrew calendar currently runs "one month late" more than 21% of the time.

    Dr. Irv Bromberg has proposed a 353-year cycle of 4366 months, which would include 130 leap months, along with use of a progressively shorter molad interval, which would keep an amended fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar from drifting for more than seven millennia.[100] It takes about 3​12 centuries for the spring equinox to drift an average of ​119th of a molad interval earlier in the Hebrew calendar. That is a very important time unit, because it can be cancelled by simply truncating a 19-year cycle to 11 years, omitting 8 years including three leap years from the sequence. That is the essential feature of the 353-year leap cycle ((9 × 19) + 11 + (9 × 19) = 353 years).

    Religious questions abound about how such a system might be implemented and administered throughout the diverse aspects of the world Jewish community.[101]


    Conversion between Jewish and civil calendars[edit]


    The list below gives a time which can be used to determine the day the Jewish ecclesiastical (spring) year starts over a period of nineteen years:


    20:18 Monday, 31 March 2014

    05:07 Saturday, 21 March 2015

    02:40 Friday, 8 April 2016

    11:28 Tuesday, 28 March 2017

    20:17 Saturday, 17 March 2018

    17:50 Friday, 5 April 2019

    02:38 Wednesday, 25 March 2020

    11:27 Sunday, 14 March 2021

    09:00 Saturday, 2 April 2022

    17:49 Wednesday, 22 March 2023

    15:21 Tuesday, 9 April 2024

    00:10 Sunday, 30 March 2025

    08:59 Thursday, 19 March 2026

    06:31 Wednesday, 7 April 2027

    15:20 Sunday, 26 March 2028

    00:09 Friday, 16 March 2029

    21:41 Wednesday, 3 April 2030

    06:30 Monday, 24 March 2031

    15:19 Friday, 12 March 2032

    Every nineteen years this time is 2 days, 16 hours, 33 1/18 minutes later in the week. That is either the same or the previous day in the civil calendar, depending on whether the difference in the day of the week is three or two days. If 29 February is included fewer than five times in the nineteen – year period the date will be later by the number of days which corresponds to the difference between the actual number of insertions and five. If the year is due to start on Sunday, it actually begins on the following Tuesday if the following year is due to start on Friday morning. If due to start on Monday, Wednesday or Friday it actually begins on the following day. If due to start on Saturday, it actually begins on the following day if the previous year was due to begin on Monday morning.

    The table below lists, for a Jewish year commencing on 23 March, the civil date of the first day of each month. If the year does not begin on 23 March, each month's first day will differ from the date shown by the number of days that the start of the year differs from 23 March. The correct column is the one which shows the correct starting date for the following year in the last row. If 29 February falls within a Jewish month the first day of later months will be a day earlier than shown.

















































    Civil date of first day of Jewish months
    Length of year:353 days354 days355 days383 days384 days385 days
    First month23 March
    Second month22 April
    Third month21 May
    Fourth month20 June
    Fifth month19 July
    Sixth month18 August
    Seventh month16 September
    Eighth month16 October
    Ninth month14 November15 November14 November15 November
    Tenth month13 December14 December15 December13 December14 December15 December
    Eleventh month11 January12 January13 January11 January12 January13 January
    Added monthN/A10 February11 February12 February
    Twelfth month10 February11 February12 February12 March13 March14 March
    First month11 March12 March13 March10 April11 April12 April

    For long period calculations, dates should be reduced to the Julian calendar and converted back to the civil calendar at the end of the calculation. The civil calendar used here (Exigian) is correct to one day in 44,000 years and omits the leap day in centennial years which do not give remainder 200 or 700 when divided by 900.[102] It is identical to the Gregorian calendar between 15 October 1582 CE and 28 February 2400 CE (both dates inclusive).

    To find how many days the civil calendar is ahead of the Julian in any year from 301 BCE (the calendar is proleptic [assumed] up to 1582 CE) add 300 to the year, multiply the hundreds by 7, divide by 9 and subtract 4. Ignore any fraction of a day. When the difference between the calendars changes the calculated value applies on and from March 1 (civil date) for conversions to Julian. For earlier dates reduce the calculated value by one. For conversions to the civil date the calculated value applies on and from February 29 (Julian date). Again, for earlier dates reduce the calculated value by one. The difference is applied to the calendar one is converting into. A negative value indicates that the Julian date is ahead of the civil date. In this case it is important to remember that when calculating the civil equivalent of February 29 (Julian), February 29 is discounted. Thus if the calculated value is −4 the civil equivalent of this date is February 24. Before 1 CE use astronomical years rather than years BCE. The astronomical year is (year BCE) – 1.

    Up to the 4th century CE, these tables give the day of the Jewish month to within a day or so and the number of the month to within a month or so. From the 4th century, the number of the month is given exactly and from the 9th century the day of the month is given exactly as well.

    In the Julian calendar, every 76 years the Jewish year is due to start 5h 47 14/18m earlier, and 3d 18h 12 4/18m later in the week.


    Example calculation

    On what civil date does the eighth month begin in CE 20874-5?

    20874=2026+(248x76). In (248x76) Julian years the Jewish year is due to start (248x3d 18h 12 4/18m) later in the week, which is 932d 2h 31 2/18m or 1d 2h 31 2/18m later after removing complete weeks. Allowing for the current difference of thirteen days between the civil and Julian calendars, the Julian date is 13+(248x0d 5h 47 4/18m) earlier, which is 72d 21h 28 16/18m earlier. Convert back to the civil calendar by applying the formula.


    20874+300=21174

    211x7=1477

    1477/9=164 remainder 1

    164-4=160.

    160d-72d 21h 28 16/18m=87d 2h 31 2/18m.

    So, in 20874 CE, the Jewish year is due to begin 87d 2h 31 2/18m later than in 2026 CE and 1d 2h 31 2/18m later in the week. In 20874 CE, therefore, the Jewish year is due to begin at 11.30 3/18 A.M. on Friday, 14 June. Because of the displacements, it actually begins on Saturday, 15 June. Odd months have 30 days and even months 29, so the starting dates are 2, 15 July; 3, 13 August; 4, 12 September; 5, 11 October; 6, 10 November; 7, 9 December, and 8, 8 January.

    The rules are based on the theory that Maimonides explains in his book "Rabbinical Astronomy"[103] – no allowance is made for the secular (centennial) decrease of ½ second in the length of the mean tropical year and the increase of about four yards in the distance between the earth and the moon resulting from tidal friction because astronomy was not sufficiently developed in the 12th century (when Maimonides wrote his book) to detect this.


    See also[edit]



    References[edit]



    1. ^ Specifically, the ripening of the barley crop; the age of the kids, lambs, and doves; the ripeness of the fruit trees; and the relation of the date to the tekufah (seasons). See the Talmud, Sanhedrin 11b

    2. ^ This and certain other calculations in this article are now provided by a template ({{Hebrew year/rhdatum}}). This template is mainly sourced from http://www.hebcal.com, though the information is widely available.

    3. ^ Gen 1:5, Gen 1:8, Gen 1:13, Gen 1:19, Gen 1:23, Gen 1:31 and Gen 2.2.

    4. ^ Kurzweil, Arthur (9 February 2011). "The Torah For Dummies". John Wiley & Sons – via Google Books.

    5. ^ https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/134527/jewish/Zmanim-Briefly-Defined-and-Explained.htm

    6. ^ Otto Neugebauer, "The astronomy of Maimonides and its sources", Hebrew Union College Annual 23 (1949) 322–363.

    7. ^ See Willie Roth's essay The International Date Line and Halacha.

    8. ^ "Appendix II: Baal HaMaor's Interpretation of 20b and its Relevance to the Dateline" in Talmud BavliSchottenstein Edition, Tractate Rosh HaShanahMesorah Publications Ltd. ("ArtScroll") 1999, where "20b" refers to the 20th page 2nd folio of the tractate.

    9. ^ See, for example, Berachot chapter 1, Mishnah 2.

    10. ^ See Genesis 1:8, 1:13, 1:19, 1:23, 1:31 and 2.2.

    11. ^ For example, according t o Morfix מילון מורפיקס, Morfix Dictionary, which is based upon Prof. Yaakov Choeka's Rav Milim dictionary. But the word meaning a non-Talmudic week is שָׁבוּע (shavuʻa)according to the same "מילון מורפיקס".

    12. ^ For example, when referring to the daily psalm recited in the morning prayer (Shacharit).

    13. ^ In contrast, the Gregorian calendar is a pure solar calendar, while the Islamic calendar is a pure lunar calendar.

    14. ^ Under the fixed, calculated calendar, this is only loosely true. Because the calculations are based on mean lunar months, not observed ones–and because of the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules—a given month may not begin on the same day as its astronomical conjunction. See Bromberg, Dr. Irv (August 5, 2010). "Moon and the Molad of the Hebrew Calendar". utoronto.ca. Retrieved December 16, 2012.

    15. ^ This practice continues to be used in Karaite Judaism as well as in the Islamic calendar.

    16. ^ a b Tosefta Sanhedrin 2.2, Herbert Danby, Trans., Tractate Sanhedrin Mishnah and ToseftaSociety for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London and New York, 1919, p. 31. Also quoted in Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE – Tenth Century CE, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 70.

    17. ^ a b c d Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions (1961) by Roland De Vaux, John McHugh, Publisher: McGraw–Hill, ISBN 978-0-8028-4278-7, p.179

    18. ^ M. Rosh Hashanah 1.7

    19. ^ M. Rosh Hashanah 2.6–8

    20. ^ a b b. Rosh Hashanah 20b: "This is what Abba the father of R. Simlai meant: 'We calculate the new moon's birth. If it is born before midday, then certainly it will have been seen shortly before sunset. If it was not born before midday, certainly it will not have been seen shortly before sunset.' What is the practical value of this remark? R. Ashi said: Confuting the witnesses." I. Epstein, Ed., The Babylonian Talmud Seder Mo'ed, Soncino Press, London, 1938, p. 85.

    21. ^ M. Rosh Hashanah 2.2

    22. ^ b. Betzah 4b

    23. ^ Sanctification of the New Moon. Archived 2010-06-21 at the Wayback Machine Translated from the Hebrew by Solomon Gandz; supplemented, introduced, and edited by Julian Obermann; with an astronomical commentary by Otto Neugebauer. Yale Judaica Series, Volume 11, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956

    24. ^ http://www.ehebrew.org/articles/hebrew-calendar.php

    25. ^ Gen 7:11 says "... on the seventeenth day of the second month—on that day all the springs of the great deep burst forth..." and 8:3–4 says "...At the end of the hundred and fifty days the water had gone down, (4) and on the seventeenth day of the seventh month the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat..." There is an interval of 5 months and 150 days, making each month 30 days long.

    26. ^ Hachlili, Rachel (2013). Ancient Synagogues – Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research. Glattbutt. p. 342. ISBN 978-9004257733.

    27. ^ Ulfgard, Håkan (1998). The Story of Sukkot : the Setting, Shaping and Sequel of the Biblical Feast of Tabernacles. Mohr Siebeck. p. 99. ISBN 3-16-147017-6.

    28. ^ (12 Signs, 12 Sons: Astrology in the Bible, David Womack, Harper & Row, San Francisco 1978, pg 43)

    29. ^ Solomon, Gandz (1947–1948). "Date of the Composition of Maimonides' Code". Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish ResearchVol. 17, pp. 1–7. doi:10.2307/3622160. JSTOR 3622160. Retrieved March 14, 2013.

    30. ^ a b c Chronology of the Old Testament, Dr. Floyd Nolen Jones "When the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to Europe during the 8th and 9th centuries CE, calculations from the Seleucid era became meaningless. Over those centuries, it was replaced by that of the anno mundi era of the Seder Olam. From the 11th century, anno mundi dating became dominant throughout most of the world's Jewish communities."

    31. ^ Alden A. Mosshammer. The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era.

    32. ^ p.107, Kantor

    33. ^ a b See The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries.

    34. ^ A minority opinion places Creation on 25 Adar AM 1, six months earlier, or six months after the modern epoch.

    35. ^ Fisher Saller, Carol; Harper, Russell David, eds. (2010). "9.34: Eras". The Chicago Manual of Style (16th ed.). Chicago: Univiversity of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-10420-1.

    36. ^ a b Edwin Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings(1st ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1951; 2d ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983). ISBN 0-8254-3825-X, 9780825438257

    37. ^ Adsole, Atenebris. "Babylonian Talmud: 'Abodah Zarah 10". www.come-and-hear.com.

    38. ^ a b Avodah Zarah, tractate 9 Footnote: "The Eras in use among Jews in Talmudic Times are: (a) ERA OF CONTRACTS [H] dating from the year 380 before the Destruction of the Second Temple (312–1 BCE) when, at the Battle of Gaza, Seleucus Nicator, one of the followers of Alexander the Great, gained dominion over Palestine. It is also termed Seleucid or Greek Era [H]. Its designation as Alexandrian Era connecting it with Alexander the Great (Maim. Yad, Gerushin 1, 27) is an anachronism, since Alexander died in 323 BCE—eleven years before this Era began (v. E. Mahler, Handbuch der judischen Chronologie, p. 145). This Era, which is first mentioned in Mac. I, 10, and was used by notaries or scribes for dating all civil contracts, was generally in vogue in eastern countries till the 16th cent, and was employed even in the 19th cent, among the Jews of Yemen, in South Arabia (Eben Saphir, Lyck, 1866, p. 62b). (b) THE ERA OF THE DESTRUCTION (of the Second Temple) [H] the year 1 of which corresponds to 381 of the Seleucid Era, and 69–70 of the Christian Era. This Era was mainly employed by the Rabbis and was in use in Palestine for several centuries, and even in the later Middle Ages documents were dated by it. One of the recently discovered Genizah documents bears the date 13 Tammuz 987 after the Destruction of the Temple—i.e., 917 C.E. (Op. cit. p. 152, also Marmorstein ZDMG, Vol. VI, p. 640). The difference between the two Eras as far as the tens and units are concerned is thus 20. If therefore a Tanna, say in the year 156 Era of Dest. (225 CE), while remembering, naturally, the century, is uncertain about the tens and units, he should ask the notary what year it is according to his—Seleucid—era. He will get the answer 536 (156 + 380), on adding 20 to which he would get 556, the last two figures giving him the year [1] 56 of the Era of Destruction."

    39. ^ Scherman, Nosson (2005). Artscroll Chumash.

    40. ^ The barley had to be "eared out" (ripe) in order to have a wave-sheaf offering of the first fruits according to the Law. Jones, Stephen (1996). Secrets of Time.

    41. ^ See Maaser Rishon, Maaser Sheni, Maaser Ani.

    42. ^ Josephus, Antiquities 1.81, Loeb Classical Library, 1930.

    43. ^ The Chronology of the Old Testament16th ed., Floyd Nolan Jones, ISBN 978-0-89051-416-0, pp. 118–123

    44. ^ M. Rosh Hashanah 1, in Herbert Danby, trans., The MishnahOxford University Press, 1933, p. 1 88.

    45. ^ See also Golden number.

    46. ^ "The Jewish Calendar: A Closer Look". Judaism 101. Retrieved 25 March 2011.

    47. ^ Dershowitz, Nachum; Reingold, Edward M. (December 2007). Calendrical Calculations (Third ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 91.

    48. ^ R. Avraham bar Chiya ha-nasi. Sefer ha-Ibbur (part 2, chapters 9,10).

    49. ^ Tur, O.C. (section 428).

    50. ^ Rambam. Hilchos Kiddush ha-Chodesh (chapters 6,7,8).

    51. ^ W. M. Feldman (1965). "Chapter 17: The Fixed Calendar". Rabbinical Mathematics and Astronomy (2nd ed.). Hermon Press.

    52. ^ Hugo Mandelbaum (1986). "Introduction: Elements of the Calendar Calculations". In Arthur Spier. The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar (3rd ed.).

    53. ^ Landau, Remy. "Hebrew Calendar Science and Myth: 'The Debatable Dehiyah Molad Zaquen'". Retrieved 7 February 2015.

    54. ^ This is the reason given by most halachic authorities, based on the Talmud, Rosh Hashanah 20b and Sukkah 43b. Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Kiddush Hachodesh 7:7), however, writes that the arrangement was made (possible days alternating with impossible ones) in order to average out the difference between the mean and true lunar conjunctions.

    55. ^ The Talmud (Rosh Hashanah 20b) puts it differently: over two consecutive days of full Shabbat restrictions, vegetables would wilt (since they can't be cooked), and unburied corpses would putrefy.

    56. ^ Yerushalmi, Sukkah 54b.

    57. ^ Bushwick, Nathan (1989). Understanding the Jewish Calendar. New York/Jerusalem: Moznaim. S. 95–97. ISBN 0-940118-17-3.

    58. ^ Poznanski, Samuel (1910). "Calendar (Jewish)". In Hastings, James. Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics. 3. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. p. 121.

    59. ^ Resnikoff, Louis A. (1943). "Jewish Calendar Calculations". Scripta Mathematica. 9: 276.

    60. ^ In the Four gates sources (keviyot cited here are in Hebrew in sources): Bushwick forgot to include 5D for leap years. Poznanski forgot to include 5D for a limit in his table although he did include it in his text as 5D1; for leap years he incorrectly listed 5C7 instead of the correct 5C3. Resnikoff's table is correct.

    61. ^ Robert Schram, Kalendariographische und Chronologische Tafeln, 1908, pp. XXIII–XXVI, 190–238. Schram gives the type of Hebrew year for all years 1–6149 AM (−3760 – 2388 Julian/Gregorian) in a main table (3946+) and its adjunct (1+, 1742+) on pages 191–234 in the form 2d, 2a, 3r, 5r, 5a, 7d, 7a for common years and 2D, 2A, 3R, 5D, 5A, 7D, 7A for leap years. The type of year 1 AM, 2a, is on page 200 at the far right.

    62. ^ a b Sacha Stern, Calendar and CommunityOxford University Press, 2001, pp. 162ff.

    63. ^ James B. Pritchard, ed., The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and PicturesVol. 1, Princeton University Press, p. 213.

    64. ^ M. Sanhedrin 5.3: "If one testifies, 'on the second of the month, and the other, 'on the third of the month:' their evidence is valid, for one may have been aware of the intercalation of the month and the other may not have been aware of it. But if one says, 'on the third', and the other 'on the fifth', their evidence is invalid."

    65. ^ M. Baba Metzia 8.8.

    66. ^ Gandz, Solomon. "Studies in the Hebrew Calendar: II. The origin of the Two New Moon Days", Jewish Quarterly Review (New Series), 40(2), 1949–50. JSTOR 1452961. doi:10.2307/1452961. Reprinted in Shlomo Sternberg, ed., Studies in Hebrew Astronomy and Mathematics by Solomon GandzKTAV, New York, 1970, pp. 72–73.

    67. ^ Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community.

    68. ^ a b E.S. Kennedy, "Al-Khwarizmi on the Jewish calendar", Scripta Mathematica 27 (1964) 55–59.

    69. ^ a b "al-Khwarizmi", Dictionary of Scientific BiographyVII: 362, 365.

    70. ^ Stern, Sacha (2001). Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE – Tenth Century CE. Oxford. ISBN 9780198270348.

    71. ^ Julian, Letter 25, in John Duncombe, Select Works of the Emperor Julian and some Pieces of the Sophist LibaniusVol. 2, Cadell, London, 1784, pp. 57–62.

    72. ^ Epiphanius, Adversus Haereses 30.4.1, in Frank Williams, trans., The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis Book I (Sections 1–46), Leiden, E. J.Brill, 1987, p. 122.

    73. ^ H. Graetz, Popular History of the Jews, (A. B. Rhine, trans.,) Hebrew Publishing Company, New York, 1919, Vol. II, pp. 410–411. Quoted in Sacha Stern, Calendar and Communityp. 216.

    74. ^ Lieberman, S. "Palestine in the Third and Fourth Centuries", Jewish Quarterly ReviewNew Series 36, pp. 329–370(1946). JSTOR 1452134. doi:10.2307/1452134. Quoted in Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community, pp. 216–217.

    75. ^ Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE – Tenth Century CEOxford University Press, 2001. In particular section 5.1.1, discussion of the "Persecution theory."

    76. ^ Poznanski, Samuel, "Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar", Jewish Quarterly ReviewOriginal Series, Vol. 10, pp. 152–161(1898). JSTOR 1450611. doi:10.2307/1450611.

    77. ^ "While it is not unreasonable to attribute to Hillel II the fixing of the regular order of intercalations, his full share in the present fixed calendar is doubtful." Entry "Calendar", Encyclopedia JudaicaKeter, Jerusalem, 1971.

    78. ^ Samuel Poznanski, "Calendar (Jewish)", Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethicsvol. 3.

    79. ^ Yerushalmi Megillah 70b.

    80. ^ Yerushalmi Sukkah 54b.

    81. ^ a b c Rosen, Alan (2014). "Tracking Jewish time in Auschwitz". Yad Vashem Studies. 42 (2): 41. OCLC 1029349665.

    82. ^ David Lev (23 December 2012). "Rabbinate: New Year's Eve Parties 'Not Kosher'". Arutz Sheva. Retrieved 30 November 2013.

    83. ^ "Karaite Korner – New Moon and the Hebrew Month". www.karaite-korner.org.

    84. ^ "Aviv Barley in the Biblical Calendar – Nehemia's Wall". 24 February 2016.

    85. ^ a b "The Samaritan Calendar" (PDF). www.thesamaritanupdate.com. 2008. Retrieved 28 December 2017.

    86. ^ a b Benyamim, Tzedaka. "Calendar". www.israelite-samaritans.com. Retrieved 28 December 2017.

    87. ^ Glowatz, Elana (23 January 2018). "One Of The Last Dead Sea Scroll Mysteries Has Been Deciphered". International Business Times. Retrieved 23 January 2018.

    88. ^ Sacha Stern, "The Babylonian Calendar at Elephantine", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 130, 159–171(2000).

    89. ^ Lester L. Grabbe, A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, Volume 1: Yehud: A History of the Persian Province of JudahT&T Clark, London, 2004, p. 186.

    90. ^ Eduard Schwartz, Christliche und jüdische Ostertafeln, (Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. Philologisch-Historische Klasse. Neue Folge, Band viii, Berlin, 1905.

    91. ^ Peter of Alexandria, quoted in the Chronicon Paschale. Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, Chronicon Paschale Vol. 1, Weber, Bonn, 1832, p. 7

    92. ^ Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community, pp. 87–97, 146–153.

    93. ^ Neugebauer, Astronomical cuneiform textsVol 1, pp 271–273

    94. ^ G. J. Toomer, Hipparchus' Empirical Basis for his Lunar Mean Motions, CentaurusVol 24, 1980, pp. 97–109

    95. ^ Weinberg, I., Astronomical Aspects of the Jewish CalendarMonthly Notes of the Astronomical Society of South Afri ca, Vol. 15, p. 86; available at [1]

    96. ^ The following description is based on the article "Calendar" in Encyclopaedia Judaica (Jerusalem: Ketter, 1972). It is an explanatory description, not a procedural one, in particular explaining what is going on with the third and fourth deḥiyyot

    97. ^ So for example if the Tishrei molad is calculated as occurring from noon on Wednesday (the 18th hour of the fourth day) up until noon on Thursday, Rosh Hashanah falls on a Thursday, which starts Wednesday at sunset wherever one happens to be.

    98. ^ This will happen if TM1 is on or after 3:11:20 a.m. and before noon on a Tuesday. If TM1 is Monday, Thursday or Saturday, Rosh Hashanah in year 2 does not need to be postponed. If TM1 is Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, Rosh Hashanah in year 1 is postponed, so year 1 is not the maximum length.

    99. ^ TM2 will be between noon and 2:27:16​23 p.m. on Tuesday, and TM3 will be between 9:32:43​13 and noon on Monday.

    100. ^ Bromberg, Irv. "The Rectified Hebrew Calendar". Retrieved 2011-05-13.

    101. ^ "Committee concerning the fixing of the Calendar – The Sanhedrin English". www.thesanhedrin.org.

    102. ^ Cassidy, Simon. "Re: How long is a year..EXACTLY? East Carolina University Calendar discussion List CALNDR-L". 25 October 1996. Retrieved 7 February 2015.

    103. ^ Feldman, W M. Rabbinical Mathematics and Astronomy:Judaic Studies Library; Nein. SHP 4. New York, 1978. ISBN 978-0872030268.


    Bibliography[edit]


    • al-Biruni. The Chronology of Ancient Nations, Chapter VII. tr. C. Edward Sachau. London, 1879.

    • Ari Belenkiy. "A Unique Feature of the Jewish Calendar – Dehiyot". Culture and Cosmos 6 (2002) 3–22.

    • Jonathan Ben-Dov. Head of All Years: Astronomy and Calendars at Qumran in their Ancient Context. Leiden: Brill, 2008.

    • Bonnie Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens. The Oxford Companion to the Year: An Exploration of Calendar Customs and Time-reckoning. Oxford University Press; USA, 2000.

    • Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby. Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan Calendars. George Bell and Sons, London, 1901.

    • Nathan Bushwick. Understanding the Jewish Calendar. Moznaim, New York/Jerusalem, 1989. ISBN 0-940118-17-3

    • William Moses Feldman. Rabbinical Mathematics and Astronomy3rd edition, Sepher-Hermon Press, New York, 1978.

    • Eduard Mahler, Handbuch der jüdischen Chronologie. Buchhandlung Gustav Fock, Leipzig, 1916.

    • Helen R. Jacobus. Zodiac Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Their Reception: Ancient Astronomy and Astrology in Early Judaism. Leiden: Brill, 2014. ISBN 9789004284050

    • Otto Neugebauer. Ethiopic astronomy and computus. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische Klasse, Sitzungsberichte 347. Vienna, 1979.

    • The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three, Treatise Eight: Sanctification of the New Moon. Translated by Solomon Gandz. Yale Judaica Series Volume XI, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1956.

    • Samuel Poznanski. "Calendar (Jewish)". Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics. T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, 1910, vol. 3, pp. 117–124.

    • Edward M. Reingold and Nachum Dershowitz. Calendrical Calculations: The Millennium Edition. Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (2001). ISBN 0-521-77752-6

    723–730.


    • Louis A. Resnikoff. "Jewish Calendar Calculations", Scripta Mathematica 9 (1943) 191–195, 274–277.

    • Eduard Schwartz, Christliche und jüdische Ostertafeln (Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. Philologisch-Historische Klasse. Neue Folge, Band viii), Berlin, 1905.

    • Arthur Spier. The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar: Twentieth to the Twenty-Second Century 5660–5860/1900–2100. Feldheim Publishers, Jerusalem/New York, 1986.

    • Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar 2nd Century BCE to 10th Century CE. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 9780198270348.

    • Ernest Wiesenberg. "Appendix: Addenda and Corrigenda to Treatise VIII". The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three: The Book of Seasons. Yale Judaica Series Volume XIV, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1961. pp. 557–602.

    • Francis Henry Woods. "Calendar (Hebrew)", Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics. T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, 1910, vol. 3, pp. 108–109.

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