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Shiva - Wikipedia



Hindu-Gott, das höchste Wesen des Universums



Shiva
Oberes Wesen; Herr der göttlichen Energie, Meditation, Kunst, Yoga, Zeit, Zerstörung, Tanz; Oberster Zerstörer des Bösen; Lord of the Devas (Götter);
Shiva cropped.jpg
Zugehörigkeit Parabrahman (Shaivism), Trimurti, Paramatman, Ishvara, Deva [1]
Mantra Om Namah Shivaya
Waffe Pashupatastra, Trident, Parashu-Axt, Pinaka-Bogen [2]; Lingam, [2] Dreizack, Halbmond, Damaru-Trommel
Montierung Nandi (Stier) [3]
Festivals Shraavana, , Ekadashi, Kartik Purnima., Bhairava Ashtami [4]
Persönliche Informationen
Consort Sati, Parvati, Kali, Adi Parashakti
Kinder Ganesha, Kanachai, Nadschai, : Ayyappan, [5] [6] Ashok Sundari [7]

Shiva (; Sanskrit: Śiv a lit. der glückverheißende ) auch bekannt als Mahadeva (wörtlich der größte Gott ) [19456063] [19456013] ist eine der Hauptgottheiten des Hinduismus . Er ist das höchste Wesen innerhalb des Shaivismus, einer der wichtigsten Traditionen des zeitgenössischen Hinduismus. [11] [12]

Shiva ist als "Der Zerstörer" innerhalb der Trimurti bekannt, der Dreiheit der Brahmen und Vishnu [1] [13] In der Tradition des Shaivismus ist Shiva das höchste Wesen, das das Universum erschafft, schützt und transformiert. [9] In der Tradition des Hinduismus, Shaktismus genannt, wird die Göttin oder Devi als überragend bezeichnet, doch Shiva wird zusammen mit Vishnu und Brahma verehrt. Eine Göttin wird als Energie und Schöpfungskraft (Shakti) bezeichnet, wobei Parvati (Sati) der gleichwertige komplementäre Partner von Shiva ist. Er ist eine der fünf gleichwertigen Gottheiten in Panchayatana puja der Smarta-Tradition des Hinduismus. [11]

Laut der Shaivism-Sekte ist die höchste Form von Shiva formlos, grenzenlos, transzendent und unveränderlich. [16] und der Ur-Atman (Seele, Selbst) des Universums. [17] Es gibt viele wohlwollende und furchterregende Darstellungen von Shiva. In wohlwollenden Aspekten wird er als ein allwissender Yogi dargestellt, der ein asketisches Leben auf dem Berg Kailash [1] sowie ein Haushälter mit Frau Parvati und seinen beiden Kindern Ganesha und Kartikeya lebt. In seinen wilden Aspekten wird er oft dargestellt, wie er Dämonen tötet. Shiva ist auch als Adiyogi Shiva bekannt, der als Schutzgott von Yoga, Meditation und Kunst gilt. [19] [20] [21]

Die ikonographischen Merkmale von Shiva sind die Schlange Sein Hals, der schmückende Halbmond, der heilige Fluss Ganga, der aus seinen verfilzten Haaren floss, das dritte Auge auf der Stirn, die Trishula oder der Dreizack als Waffe und die Damaru-Trommel. Er wird gewöhnlich in der anikonischen Form von Lingam verehrt. [2] Shiva ist eine pan-hinduistische Gottheit, die von Hindus in Indien, Nepal und Sri Lanka weithin verehrt wird. [23]




Etymologie und andere Namen




Shiva wird auch als Bhramhan bezeichnet, was auch als Parabhramhan bezeichnet werden kann . Shiva bedeutet nichts. Das Wort Shivoham bedeutet das Bewusstsein eines Individuums, Herr sagt, dass er allmächtig und allgegenwärtig ist, da er in Form des Bewusstseins anwesend ist. In Tamil wurde er mit anderen Namen als Sivan genannt. Nataraaja (Tanzform von Shiva) Rudra (Zornform von Shiva) und Dhakshinamoorthy (Yogaform von Shiva). Nataraja ist die einzige Form von Shiva, die in einer menschlichen Figur verehrt wird. An anderer Stelle wird er in Lingams Figur verehrt. Pancha Bootha Tempel befinden sich in Südindien. Pancha Bhoota Stalam. Die tamilische Literatur wird von Shiva-Anhängern mit dem Namen 63 Nayanmars (Nayanars)

angereichert. Eine Skulptur von Siva mit Schnurrbart im Archäologischen Museum GOA

Das Sanskrit-Wort " Śiva " (Devanagari: [1945 ]übersetzt als Shiva oder Siva), bedeutet Monier Monier-Williams: "verheißungsvoll, günstig, gnädig, gütig, gütig, gütig, freundlich". [24] Die Wurzeln von Śiva in der Volksetymologie sind śī was "in wem alles liegt, Durchdringlichkeit" bedeutet, und va was "Verkörperung der Gnade" bedeutet. [24] [25]

Das Wort Shiva wird im Rig Veda (etwa 1700–1100 v. Chr.) Als Adjektiv und als Inbegriff für mehrere Rigvedic-Gottheiten einschließlich Rudra verwendet. [26] Der Begriff Shiva bedeutet auch "Befreiung, endgültige Emanzipation" und "der glückverheißende". Dieses adjektive Nutzungsgefühl ist an viele Gottheiten in vedischen Literaturschichten gerichtet. [24] Der Begriff entwickelte sich vom vedischen Rudra-Shiva zum Substantiv Shiva in den Epen und den Puranas, als eine glückverheißende Gottheit, die der "Schöpfer, Reproduzent und Dissolver" ist. [24]

Sharva, Sharabha präsentiert eine andere Etymologie mit den Sanskrit-Wurzeln śarv - was "zu verletzen" oder "zu töten" bedeutet, [29] der Name bedeutet "einen, der die Mächte der Dunkelheit töten kann".

Das Sanskrit-Wort aaiva bedeutet "in Bezug auf den Gott Shiva", und dieser Begriff ist der Sanskrit-Name für einen der Hauptverantwortlichen Sekten des Hinduismus und für ein Mitglied dieser Sekte [31] Es wird als Adjektiv verwendet, um bestimmte Überzeugungen und Praktiken wie den Shaivism zu charakterisieren. [32]

Einige Autoren assoziieren den Namen mit dem tamilischen Wort śivappu was "rot" bedeutet, und weisen darauf hin, dass Shiva ist mit der Sonne verbunden ( śivan "der Rote", auf Tamilisch) und Rudra wird auch Babhru (braun oder rot) in der Rigveda genannt. 19460087] [34] Vishnu sahasranama interpretiert Shiva um mehrere Bedeutungen zu haben: "Der Reine" und "Der Eine, der nicht von drei Guṇas von Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas und Tamas) betroffen ist" [35] [36]

Shiva ist unter vielen Namen bekannt, wie Viswanatha (Herr des Universums), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, [37] Mahasu, . [38] Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (Oberster der Götter), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (Herr der drei Reiche), [39] [40] [41] und Ghrneshwar (Lord of Compassion) [42] Die höchste Verehrung Shivas im Shaivismus spiegelt sich in seinen Inschriften Mahādeva ("Großer Gott"; Maha "Groß" und Deva "Gott"), ] [43] [44] Maheśvara ("Großer Lord"; mahā "Great" und īśvara "lord"), [45] [46] und Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord"). [47]

Sahasranama sind mittelalterliche indische Texte, aus denen tausend Namen stammen Aspekte und Epitheta einer Gottheit. [48] Es gibt mindestens acht verschiedene Versionen der Shiva Sahasranama Andachtenhymnen ( stotras ), in denen viele Namen von Shiva aufgeführt sind. [49] Die in Buch 13 ( Anuśāsanaparvan ) der Mahabharata erscheinende Version stellt eine solche Liste bereit. [50] Shiva hat auch Dasha-Sahasranamas (10.000 Namen), die im Mahanyasa gefunden werden. Shri Rudram Chamakam auch bekannt als Śatarudriya ist eine fromme Hymne auf Shiva, die ihn mit vielen Namen begrüßt. [51] [19469006]


Historische Entwicklung und Literatur



Die Shiva-bezogene Tradition ist ein wichtiger Teil des Hinduismus, der in ganz Indien, Nepal, Sri Lanka, [23] und Bali (Indonesien) gefunden wird. [53] Gelehrte haben frühe prähistorische Gemälde in den Bhimbetka-Felsunterkünften interpretiert, die aus der Zeit vor 10.000 v. Chr. Stammten, [54] als Shiva tanzen, Shivas Dreizack und sein Berg Nandi. [3] [55] [56] Felsmalereien aus Bhimbetka, die eine Figur mit einem Trishul darstellen, wurden von Erwin Neumayer als Nataraja beschrieben, der sie mit dem Mesolithikum datiert. [57]


Ursprünge des Indus-Tals



Bei der Ausgrabung des Indus gefundenes Siegel Die archäologische Stätte des Tales im Indus-Tal hat als mögliche Darstellung einer "Yogi" oder "Proto-Shiva" -Abbildung Aufmerksamkeit erregt.

Von mehreren Indus-Tal-Robben, die Tiere zeigen, zeigt eine Robbe, die Aufmerksamkeit erregt hat, eine große zentrale Figur entweder gehörnt oder gehörnten Kopfbedeckung und möglicherweise ithyphallisch, [58] [59] [60] in einer Haltung, die an die Lotus-Position erinnert, umgeben von Tieren. Diese Figur wurde von frühen Ausgräbern von Mohenjo-Daro als Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati ), [61] und einem Epitheton der späteren Hindu-Gottheiten benannt Shiva und Rudra [62] [63] [64]

Sir John Marshall und andere vermuteten, dass diese Figur ein Prototyp von Shiva mit drei Gesichtern sei, die in einer "Yoga-Haltung" sitzen "mit den Knien und den Füßen verbunden. [65] Halbkreisförmige Formen am Kopf wurden als zwei Hörner interpretiert. Gelehrte wie Gavin Flood, John Keay und Doris Meth Srinivasan haben Zweifel an diesem Vorschlag geäußert. [68]

Gavin Flood erklärt, dass aus dem Siegel nicht hervorgeht, dass die Figur drei Gesichter hat, in einer sitzt Yoga-Haltung oder sogar, dass die Form eine menschliche Figur darstellen soll. Er charakterisiert diese Ansichten als "spekulativ", fügt jedoch hinzu, dass es dennoch Echos von ikonografischen Themen von Shaiva gibt, wie Halbmondformen, die den Hörnern eines Stiers ähneln. [65] [69] John Keay schreibt, dass "er tatsächlich eine frühe Manifestation von Lord Shiva als Pashu-pati sein kann", aber einige seiner Besonderheiten dieser Figur passen nicht zu Rudra. [70] Srinivasan schreibt 1997, was John Marshall als nicht nur menschlich, sondern eher als Rinder, möglicherweise als göttlichen Büffelmann, interpretiert. [68]

Die Interpretation des Siegels ist weiterhin umstritten. McEvilley gibt beispielsweise an, es sei nicht möglich, "diese Haltung außerhalb des yogischen Kontos zu berücksichtigen". [71] Asko Parpola gibt an, dass andere archäologische Funde wie die frühen elamitischen Siegeln aus dem Jahr 3000-2750 v. Chr. Ähnliche Zahlen aufweisen und diese als "sitzender Bulle" und nicht als Yogi interpretiert wurden und die Interpretation von Rindern wahrscheinlich genauer ist. 19460128] Gregory L. Possehl im Jahr 2002 verband ihn mit dem Wasserbüffel und kam zu dem Schluss, dass es zwar angebracht wäre, die Figur als Gottheit und ihre Haltung als eine rituelle Disziplin anzuerkennen, die jedoch als Proto-Shiva betrachtet würde far ". [73]


Vedische Ursprünge


Die vedische Literatur bezieht sich auf eine geringfügige atmosphärische Gottheit mit furchterregenden Kräften, Rudra genannt. Die Rigveda zum Beispiel hat 3 von 1028 Hymnen, die Rudra gewidmet sind, und er findet gelegentlich in anderen Hymnen denselben Text. Der Begriff Shiva kommt auch in der Rigveda vor, aber einfach als ein Epitheton, der "freundlich, verheißungsvoll" bedeutet, eines der Adjektive, mit denen viele verschiedene vedische Gottheiten beschrieben werden. Während in den Hymnen der Rigveda heftiges rücksichtsloses Naturereignis und sturmbedingtes Rudra befürchtet wird, werden die wohltuenden Regenfälle, die er mit sich bringt, als Shiva-Aspekt von ihm begrüßt. Dieser heilsame, nährende, lebenserhaltende Aspekt taucht in den Veden als Rudra-Shiva und in der nachvedischen Literatur schließlich als Shiva auf, der die zerstörerischen und konstruktiven Kräfte, das Schreckliche und das Pazifik, als den ultimativen Recycler und Verjünger aller Existenz vereint

Die Ähnlichkeiten zwischen der Ikonographie und den Theologien Shivas mit griechischen und europäischen Gottheiten haben zu Vorschlägen für eine indogermanische Verbindung für Shiva geführt, [77] [78] oder seitlicher Austausch mit alte zentralasiatische Kulturen. [79] [80] Seine widersprüchlichen Aspekte wie schrecklich oder glückselig, je nach Situation, ähneln denen des griechischen Gottes Dionysos [81] ebenso wie ihre ikonischen Assoziationen mit Stier, Schlangen, Wut, Tapferkeit und Sorglosigkeit [82] [83] Die antiken griechischen Texte aus der Zeit Alexanders des Großen bezeichnen Shiva als "indischen Dionysos" oder alternativ Dionysos als "Gott des Orients" . [82] In ähnlicher Weise wird die Verwendung des phallischen Symbols als Symbol für Shiva auch für irische, nordische, griechische (Dionysos [84] ) und römische Gottheiten gefunden, ebenso wie die Idee dieser aniconischen Säule, die Himmel und Erde zwischen Himmel und Erde verbindet frühe Indo-Arier, sagt Roger Woodward [77] Andere wenden sich gegen solche Vorschläge und schlagen vor, dass Shiva aus indigenen Stammen aus vor-arischen Stämmen hervorgegangen sein sollte. [85]


Rudra


Dreiköpfiger Shiva, Gandhara, 2. Jahrhundert n. Chr.

Shiva, wie wir ihn kennen Heute teilt er viele Eigenschaften mit dem vedischen Gott Rudra, [86] und sowohl Shiva als auch Rudra werden in den hinduistischen Schriften als die gleiche Persönlichkeit angesehen. Die beiden Namen werden synonym verwendet. Rudra, der Gott des tosenden Sturms, wird gewöhnlich in Übereinstimmung mit dem Element dargestellt, das er als eine heftige, zerstörerische Gottheit darstellt. [87]

Der älteste erhaltene Text des Hinduismus ist der Rig Veda, auf den datiert wird zwischen 1700 und 1100 v. Chr. aufgrund sprachlicher und philologischer Nachweise. [88] Ein Gott namens Rudra wird im Rig Veda erwähnt. Der Name Rudra wird immer noch als Name für Shiva verwendet. In RV 2.33 wird er als "Vater der Rudras", einer Gruppe von Sturmgöttern, beschrieben. [89]

Der Hymnus 10.92 der Rigveda besagt, dass Gottheit Rudra zwei Wesen hat, eine wilde und grausame Natur ( rudra), ein anderer, der freundlich und ruhig ist (shiva). [90] Die vedischen Texte erwähnen weder Stier noch irgendein Tier als Transportfahrzeug ( vahana ) von Rudra oder anderen Gottheiten. Post-vedische Texte wie der Mahabharata und die Puranas nennen jedoch den Nandi-Stier, insbesondere den indischen Zebu, als Vehikel von Rudra und von Shiva, wodurch sie unmissverständlich als gleich verknüpft werden. [91]


Agni


Rudra und Agni haben eine enge Beziehung. [92] [93] Die Identifizierung zwischen Agni und Rudra in der vedischen Literatur war ein wichtiger Faktor bei der schrittweisen Entwicklung Rudras zum späteren Charakter als Rudra-Shiva. [94] Die Identifizierung von Agni mit Rudra wird explizit in dem Nirukta erwähnt, einem wichtigen frühen Text zur Etymologie, in dem es heißt: "Agni wird auch Rudra genannt." [95] Die Verbindungen zwischen dem Zwei Gottheiten sind komplex und laut Stella Kramrisch:


Der Feuermythos von Rudra-Śiva spielt die gesamte Bandbreite des Feuers und schätzt alle seine Möglichkeiten und Phasen vom Feuer bis zur Erleuchtung. [96]


In Śatarudrīya einige Beinamen von Rudra, wie Sasipañjara ("Von goldenem Rot wie Flamme") und Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), schlagen eine Fusion der vor zwei gottheiten. [97] Agni soll ein Bulle sein, [98] und Lord Shiva besitzt einen Bullen als sein Fahrzeug, Nandi. Die Hörner von Agni, der manchmal als Stier bezeichnet wird, werden erwähnt. [99] [100] In der mittelalterlichen Skulptur haben sowohl Agni als auch die als Bhairava bekannte Form von Shiva flammendes Haar als Besonderheit. [101]


Indra



Münze des Kushan-Reiches (1. Jahrhundert v. Chr. Bis 2. Jahrhundert v. Chr.) ). Das rechte Bild wurde als Shiva mit Dreizack und Stier interpretiert. [102]

Nach Aussage von Wendy Doniger ist der puranische Shiva eine Fortsetzung der vedischen Indra. [103] Doniger nennt mehrere Gründe für ihre Hypothese. Beide sind mit Bergen, Flüssen, männlicher Fruchtbarkeit, Wildheit, Furchtlosigkeit, Kriegsführung, Übertretung etablierter Sitten, dem Aum-Sound, dem Supreme Self verbunden. Im Rig Veda wird der Begriff iva verwendet, um sich auf Indra zu beziehen. (2.20.3, [104] 6.45.17, [105] [106] und 8.93.3 [107] ) Indra, wird wie Shiva mit einem Stier verglichen. [108] [109] Im Rig Veda ist Rudra der Vater der Maruts, aber er ist nie mit ihren kriegerischen Taten verbunden, ebenso wie Indra. [110]

Die vedischen Überzeugungen und Praktiken der vorklassischen Ära waren eng miteinander verbunden die hypothetische Proto-Indo-Europäische Religion, [111] und die vorislamische indoiranische Religion. Die ersten ikonischen Kunstwerke von Shiva stammen möglicherweise aus Gandhara und den nordwestlichen Teilen des alten Indiens. Es besteht eine gewisse Unsicherheit, da das überlebende Kunstwerk beschädigt ist und sie einige Überlappungen mit meditativen Buddha-bezogenen Kunstwerken aufweisen, aber das Vorhandensein von Shivas Dreizack und des phallischen Symbolismus in diesem Kunstwerk deutet darauf hin, dass es wahrscheinlich Shiva war. [194560101] Die Numismatik-Forschung legt nahe, dass zahlreiche Münzen des alten Kushan-Reiches, die überlebt haben, Bilder eines Gottes waren, der wahrscheinlich Shiva ist. [114] Die Shiva in Kushan-Münzen wird als Oesho von unklarer Etymologie und Herkunft bezeichnet, aber die gleichzeitige Anwesenheit von Indra und Shiva in der Kushan-Ära lässt darauf schließen, dass sie zu Beginn des Kushan-Imperiums verehrte Gottheiten waren. [19454668] [115] [115] [19659115] [116]

Die Texte und Kunstwerke des Jainismus zeigen Indra als Tänzer, obwohl sie nicht identisch sind, aber im Allgemeinen dem tanzenden Shiva-Kunstwerk ähneln, das im Hinduismus gefunden wurde, insbesondere in ihren jeweiligen Mudras. [117] In den Jain-Höhlen in Ellora zum Beispiel zeigen umfangreiche Schnitzereien Indra neben den Bildern von Tirthankaras auf ähnliche Weise wie Shiva Nataraja. Die Ähnlichkeiten in der Tanzikonographie lassen vermuten, dass es eine Verbindung zwischen dem alten Indra und Shiva geben könnte. [116] [117]


Spätere Literatur


Rudras Entwicklung von einer kleinen vedischen Gottheit zu einem Supreme wird erstmals in der Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 v. Chr.) nachgewiesen, laut Gavin Flood. Davor ist die Upanishadische Literatur monistisch, und der Text Shvetashvatara (19459029) präsentiert den frühesten Samen der theistischen Hingabe an Rudra-Shiva. Hier wird Rudra-Shiva als Schöpfer des Kosmos und Befreier von Seelen aus dem Wiedergeburtszyklus identifiziert. Der Zeitraum von 200 v. Chr. Bis 100 n. Chr. Markiert auch den Beginn der Shaiva-Tradition, die sich auf die Verehrung von Shiva konzentrierte, wie dies in der anderen Literatur dieser Periode gezeigt wird. Die Anhänger der Shaiva und die Asketen von Shaiva werden in Patanjalis Mahābhāṣya (2. Jahrhundert v. Chr.) Und im Mahabharata . , Nach _BEDINGEN_BEDINGEN_Angeben_Angeben_Kontieren_Kontieren_Kontieren_Kaufen_Kaufen_Kaufen_Kaufen_gehen_Angeben_Kaufen__Nacht__Neer__Berat_Oder_News_Nationales_Ziel_Angebot_Konzertieren_Kaufen_Kaufen_Kaufen___Nehmen_Kaufen___Nehmen_News_News_Nationales_National_Philosophie__Nationales_Nationales_Philosophisches_Nachlass_Nachthemen_Nationales_Philosophisches_Philosophisches_Nachgehen_Nachlassischer_Philosophischer_Philosophischer_Konzern Gelehrte wie Robert Hume und Doris Srinivasan behaupten, dass der Shvetashvatara Upanishad Pluralismus, Pantheismus oder Henotheismus darstellt, anstatt nur ein Text über Shiva-Theismus zu sein. [19454650] [19650120] 19659121] [122]


Selbstverwirklichung und Shaiva Upanishads

Wer sich in allen Wesen sieht,
Und alle Wesen in ihm
erreichen den höchsten Brahman
nicht auf andere Weise .



- Kaivalya Upanishad 10



Die Shaiva Upanishaden sind eine Gruppe von 14 kleineren Upanishaden des Hinduismus, die aus den letzten Jahrhunderten des 1. Jahrtausends v. Chr. Bis ins 17. Jahrhundert stammen. Diese preisen Shiva als die metaphysisch unveränderliche Realität Brahmans und des Atman (Seele, Selbst) und enthalten Abschnitte über Riten und Symbolismen, die mit Shiva verwandt sind.

Einige Texte wie Atharvashiras Upanishad erwähnen Rudra und behaupten Alle Götter sind Rudra, jeder und alles ist Rudra, und Rudra ist das Prinzip aller Dinge, ihr höchstes Ziel, das innerste Wesen aller sichtbaren oder unsichtbaren Realität. Kaivalya Upanishad In ähnlicher Weise beschreibt Paul Deussen - ein deutscher Indologe und Philosoph der Philosophie - den selbst verwirklichten Mann als "den, der sich nur als das einzige göttliche Wesen, das in allen lebt", der Identität fühlt Sein und das Bewusstsein aller Menschen bei Shiva (dem höchsten Atman), der diesen höchsten Atman in der Tiefe seines Herzens gefunden hat.

Die Shaiva Puranas, insbesondere die Shiva Purana und die Linga Purana, stellen die verschiedenen Aspekte der Shiva-Mythologie vor , Kosmologie und Pilgerfahrt ( Tirtha ) mit ihm verbunden. Die Shiva-bezogene Tantra-Literatur, die zwischen dem 8. und 11. Jahrhundert verfasst wurde, wird im devotionalen dualistischen Shaivismus als Sruti angesehen. Dualistische Shaiva-Agamas, die die Seele in jedem Lebewesen und Shiva als zwei getrennte Realitäten betrachten (Dualismus dvaita ), sind die grundlegenden Texte für Shaiva Siddhanta. Andere Shaiva Agamas lehren, dass dies eine Realität ist (Monismus advaita ), und dass Shiva die Seele, die Vollkommenheit und die Wahrheit innerhalb jedes Lebewesens ist. [132] [133] [133] [133] In Shiva-bezogenen Sub-Traditionen gibt es zehn dualistische Agama-Texte, achtzehn qualifizierte Agama-Texte mit Monismus und Dualismus sowie vierundsechzig Monismus-Agama-Texte. [134] [135]

Shiva-verwandte Literatur In ganz Indien im 1. Jahrtausend n. Chr. und im 13. Jahrhundert, vor allem in den Traditionen von Kaschmir und Tamil Shaiva. Die monistische Shiva-Literatur setzt absolute Einheit ein, das heißt, Shiva ist in jedem Mann und in jeder Frau, Shiva ist in jedem Lebewesen, Shiva ist überall auf der Welt einschließlich aller Nicht-Lebewesen vorhanden, und es gibt keinen spirituellen Unterschied zwischen Leben, Materie, Mann und Shiva. [137] Die verschiedenen dualistischen und monistischen Ideen von Shiva wurden im mittelalterlichen Südostasien begrüßt und inspirierten zahlreiche Tempel, Kunstwerke und Texte im Zusammenhang mit Shiva in Indonesien, Myanmar, Kambodscha, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand und Malaysia mit der synkretistischen Integration lokaler Theologien [138] [139]


Assimilation von Traditionen



Die Figur von Shiva, wie wir sie heute kennen, kann eine Verschmelzung verschiedener älterer Gottheiten zu einer einzigen Figur sein. [23] [140] Wie die Persona von Shiva als zusammengesetzte Gottheit konvergierte, wird nicht verstanden, eine Herausforderung, die verfolgt werden muss und viel Spekulation auf sich gezogen hat. [141] Laut Vijay Nath zum Beispiel:


Vishnu und Siva [...] begannen, unzählige lokale Kulte und Gottheiten in ihren Falten zu absorbieren. Letztere wurden entweder zur Darstellung der vielfältigen Facetten desselben Gottes verwendet oder sollten andere Formen und Bezeichnungen bezeichnen, durch die der Gott bekannt wurde und angebetet wurde. [...] Siva wurde mit unzähligen lokalen Kulten identifiziert, und zwar durch das bloße Anhängen von Isa oder Isvara an den Namen der örtlichen Gottheit, z. B. Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara. "


Ein Beispiel für die Assimilation fand in Maharashtra statt, wo eine regionale Gottheit namens Khandoba eine Schutzgottheit von Bauern- und Viehherden ist. [143] Das wichtigste Zentrum der Verehrung von Khandoba in Maharashtra ist in Jejuri. [144] Khandoba wurde als eine Form von Shiva selbst assimiliert, [145] . In diesem Fall wird er in Form eines Lingam verehrt. [143] ] Zu den verschiedenen Assoziationen von Khandoba gehört auch eine Identifikation mit Surya [143] und Karttikeya [147]


. Position im Hinduismus


Lingodbhava ist eine Shiva-Ikone Aus dem Lingam (einer unendlichen feurigen Säule) erhebt sich dieses Narrat es ist, wie Shiva der wichtigste der Trimurti ist; Brahma und Vishnu sind im Zentrum vor Lingodbhava Shiva gebeugt. Dies zeigt auch, dass Lord Shiva nicht nur vom gesamten Universum verehrt wird, sondern auch von Lord Vishnu und Lord Bhramha und allen anderen Göttern.

Shaivism



Der Shaivism ist eine der vier Hauptsekten des Hinduismus, die anderen sind der Vaishnavism. Shaktismus und die Smarta-Tradition. Anhänger des Shaivismus, genannt "Shaivas", verehren Shiva als das höchste Wesen. Shaivas glauben, dass Shiva Alles und Alles ist, der Schöpfer, Erhalter, Zerstörer, Offenbarer und Verdecker von allem, was ist. [9] Er ist nicht nur der Schöpfer im Shaivismus, er ist die Schöpfung, die von ihm ausgeht, er ist alles und überall. Shiva ist die Urseele, das reine Bewusstsein und die absolute Realität in den Shaiva-Traditionen.

Die Theologie des Shaivismus besteht aus zwei Teilen: der populären Theologie, die von Shiva-Rudra in den Veden, Epen und Puranas beeinflusst wird; und die esoterische Theologie, beeinflusst von den Shiva- und Shakti-bezogenen Tantra-Texten. Die vedisch-brahmanische Shiva-Theologie umfasst sowohl Monisten ( advaita ) als auch religiöse Traditionen ( dvaita ) wie Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta und Lingayatismus mit Tempeln mit Gegenständen wie linga, Shiva-Parvati-Ikonographie. Bulle Nandi innerhalb der Räumlichkeiten, Reliefkunstwerk, das Mythologien und Aspekte von Shiva zeigt [150]

Die tantrische Shiva-Tradition ignorierte die Mythologien und Puranas, die mit Shiva in Verbindung standen, und entwickelte je nach Sub-School ein Spektrum von Praktiken. Historische Aufzeichnungen deuten zum Beispiel darauf hin, dass die tantrischen Kapalikas (wörtlich die "Schädelmänner") mit vielen buddhistischen Vajrayana-Ritualen koexistierten und daran teilhatten, die an esoterischen Praktiken teilgenommen haben, die Shiva und Shakti mit Schädeln verehrten, die mit leeren Totenköpfen, gebrauchten Fleisch, Alkohol und Sexualität als Teil eines Rituals. [151] Im Gegensatz dazu hat die esoterische Tradition innerhalb des Kaschmir-Shaivismus die Krama und Trika Sub-Traditionen. [152] Die Krama-Subtradition konzentrierte sich auf esoterische Rituale um Shiva-Kali-Paare. [153] Die Trika-Subtradition entwickelte eine Theologie der Triaden mit Shiva und kombinierte sie mit einem asketischen Lebensstil, der sich auf die persönliche Shiva konzentrierte, um eine monistische Selbstbefreiung anzustreben. [152] [155]


Vaishnavism


In der Vaishnava (Vishnu-orientierten) Literatur wird Shiva anerkannt und diskutiert. Wie die Shaiva-Literatur, die Shiva als überragend darstellt, stellt die Vaishnava-Literatur Vishnu als überragend dar. Beide Traditionen sind jedoch pluralistisch und verehren sowohl Shiva als auch Vishnu (zusammen mit Devi), ihre Texte zeigen keinen Exklusivismus, und Vaishnava-Texte wie Bhagavata Purana während sie Krishna als die ultimative Realität preisen, präsentieren auch Shiva und Shakti als personalisierte Form und gleichwertig zur selben ultimativen Realität. [156] [157] [158] Die Texte der Shaivism-Tradition loben ebenfalls Vishnu. In der Skanda Purana heißt es beispielsweise:



Vishnu ist niemand anderes als Shiva, und wer Shiva heißt, ist nur mit Vishnu identisch.


- Skanda Purana, 1.8.20–21 [159]


Mythologien beider Traditionen enthalten Legenden darüber, wer überlegen ist, ob Shiva Vishnu huldigt und Vishnu Shiva. In Texten und Kunstwerken beider Traditionen stellen die gegenseitigen Begrüßungen jedoch Symbolik für Komplementarität dar. [160] Der Mahabharata erklärt die unveränderliche ultimative Wirklichkeit (Brahman) als identisch mit Shiva und Vishnu [161] dass Vishnu die höchste Manifestation von Shiva ist und Shiva die höchste Manifestation von Vishnu ist. 19460214]


Shaktism



Die Göttin-basierte Shakti-Tradition des Hinduismus basiert auf der Prämisse, dass das Supreme Principle und die Ultimate Reality, Brahman genannt, weiblich sind (Devi), jedoch den Mann als ihren gleichwertigen und komplementären Partner behandelt. Dieser Partner ist Shiva.

Der früheste Beweis der Tradition der Ehrerbietung für das Weibliche im Zusammenhang mit Rudra-Shiva findet sich in der Hindu-Schrift Rigveda in einem Hymnus namens Devi Sukta:




Ich bin die Königin, die Sammlerin von Schätzen, die nachdenklichsten sind, zuerst von denen, die Anbetung verdienen.
So haben mich Götter an vielen Orten mit vielen Häusern etabliert, in die ich eintreten und wohnen kann. 19459023 Durch mich allein essen alle die Nahrung, die sie füttert. Jeder, der sieht, atmet, hört das Wort ausgesprochen.
Sie wissen es nicht, doch ich wohne im Wesentlichen des Universums. Hören Sie alle die Wahrheit, wie ich sie erkläre.

Ich selbst kündige und sage das Wort, das Götter und Menschen gleichermaßen willkommen heißen werden.
Ich mache den Mann, den ich liebe, übermächtig, mache ihn zu einem Weisen, einen Weisen und einen, der Brahman kennt.
Ich beuge den Bogen für Rudra [Shiva]damit sein Pfeil schlägt und den Hasser der Hingabe tötet.
Ich wecke mich und kämpfe um die Menschen, ich habe Erde und den Himmel erschaffen und lebe als ihr Innerer.
(...)



— Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.3 – 10.125.8, [171]


The Devi Upanishad in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19. Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the Devi Mahatmyaa text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita.[175] The Ardhanarisvara concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.[176][177]


Smarta Tradition


Oleograph by Raja Ravi Varma depicting a Shiva-centric Panchayatana. A bearded Shiva sits in the centre with his wife Parvati and their infant son Ganesha; surrounded by (clockwise from left upper corner) Ganesha, Devi, Vishnu and Surya. Shiva's mount is the bull Nandi below Shiva.


In the Smarta tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja.[178] This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent,[178] set in a quincunx pattern.[179] Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, Devi (such as Parvati), Surya and Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee's preference (Ishta Devata).[180]

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons,[181] on the path to realizing the nondual identity of one's Atman (soul, self) and the Brahman.[182] Popularized by Adi Shankara, many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).[183] The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.[183]


Yoga


Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of Yogis, and the teacher of Yoga to sages.[184] As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme guru who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self (atman) with the ultimate reality (brahman)."[185]

The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts.[186][187] These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the Isvara Gita (literally, "Shiva's song"), which Andrew Nicholson – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".[188]

Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced Hatha Yoga, integrated monistic (Advaita Vedanta) ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of Indian classical dance. These include the Shiva Sutrasthe Shiva Samhitaand those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar Abhinavagupta.[186][187][189] Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.[190]


Trimurti



The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer.[191][192] These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"[193] or the "Great Trinity".[194] However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.[195]


Attributes


Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the Ganges flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland, covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin

A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands.

  • Third eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes,[196] called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम् ), which occurs in many scriptural sources.[197] In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the MahabharataShiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".[198] However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ambā or ambikā means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".[199][200] These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās.[201] Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā.[202]

  • Crescent moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.[203] The epithet Candraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" – candra = "moon"; śekhara = "crest, crown")[204][205][206] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.[207] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.[208]

  • Ashes: Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (bhasma, vibhuti).[209][210] The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal soul and spiritual liberation is important.[211][212]

  • Matted hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin"the one with matted hair",[213] and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"[214] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".[215] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.[216]

  • Blue throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = "blue", kaṇtha = "throat").[217][218] Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.[219][220]

  • Meditating yogi: his iconography often shows him in a Yoga pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga.[209]

  • Sacred Ganga: The epithet Gangadhara"Bearer of the river Ganga" (Ganges). The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva.[221][222] The Gaṅgā (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.[223]

  • Tiger skin: Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.[209]

  • Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[224]

  • Trident: Shiva typically carries a trident called Trishula.[209] The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts. As a symbol, the Trishul represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer",[226] or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three Gunas of "sattva, rajas and tamas".

  • Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru.[228][229] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation[230] known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum.[231] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.[232]

  • Axe (Parashu) and Deer are held in Shiva's hands in Odisha & south Indian icons.[233]

  • Rosary beads: he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of Rudraksha.[209] This symbolises grace, mendicant life and meditation.[234][235]

  • Nandī: Nandī, also known as "Nandin", is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: vāhana).[236][237] Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupatior Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"[238] and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.[239]

  • Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.[209][240] In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Lingarepresenting the center of the universe.[241]

  • Gaṇa: The Gaṇas are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. His son Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati"lord of the gaṇas".[242]

  • Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.[243]

Forms and depictions


According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.[244] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.


Destroyer and Benefactor


Shiva is represented in his many aspects.[245] Left: Bhairava icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in Rishikesh.

In Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".[246] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.[247]

The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-which means "to cry, howl".[248]Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudrawhich means "wild, of rudra nature", and translates the name Rudra as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".[249] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible". Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranamawhere it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys". Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".[220] Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kāla "time" and Mahākāla "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.[43][252] The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranamawhere it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time".Bhairava "terrible" or "frightful"[254] is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name Śaṇkara"beneficent" or "conferring happiness"[255] reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 788–820),[256] who is also known as Shankaracharya.[43] The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.[43][257]


Ascetic and householder


Shiva is depicted both as an ascetic yogi, and as a householder with goddess Parvati.

Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder (grihasta), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[258] When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.[259] His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: Mahā = "great", Yogi = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.[260] While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.[261]

As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhavaalso appear in the sahasranama.[262]Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign Pārvatī.[263][264] She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kali, Kamakshi and Minakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.[265] His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in South India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.[266]

Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta – identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar – is born.[267][268][269][270] In outskirts of Ernakulam in Kerala, a deity named Vishnumaya is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese" style rituals, states Saletore.[271] In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari.[7][272] According to Doniger, two regional stories depict demons Andhaka and Jalandhara as the children of Shiva who war with him, and are later destroyed by Shiva.[273]


Iconographic forms



The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: naṭarāja"Lord of Dance") is popular.[274][275] The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[276] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.[277] In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.[278] The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava,[279][280] and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.[281][282]Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava.[282] The Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.[283][284][285]

Dakshinamurthy (Dakṣiṇāmūrti)[286] literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.[287] This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.[288] Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.[289]

An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara (Ardhanārīśvara) shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman".[290]

Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripuraof the Asuras.[291] Shiva's name Tripurantaka ( Tripurāntaka), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.[292]



Lingam



Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.[293][294][295] These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the yonisymbolism for the goddess Shakti.[296] In Shiva temples, the linga is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.[296] According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, linga literally means "mark, sign or emblem", and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.[297][298] Some scholars, such as Wendy Doniger, view linga merely as an erotic phallic symbol,[299] although this interpretation is disputed by others, including Swami Vivekananda,[300]Sivananda Saraswati,[301] and S. N. Balagangadhara.[302] According to Moriz Winternitz, the linga in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.[303]

The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambhathe sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambhaand it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga.[304][305] In the text Linga Puranathe same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.[305]

The oldest known archaeological linga as an anicon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-century BCE.[296] In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called Jyotirlinga, which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.[306]


Five mantras


The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia.

Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[307] One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).[308]

Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans.[309] As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:[310]



These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[311][312] Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.[313] The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:


Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.[314]


According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:


One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)[315]


Avatars


Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally portion, or avatars of Shiva, but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in Saivism.[316] The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars
,[317] however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in Vaishnavism.[318][319][320]
Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its mythologies. For example, in the Hanuman ChalisaHanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.[321][322][323] The Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana claim sage Durvasa to be a portion of Shiva.[326] Some medieval era writers have called the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara an incarnation of Shiva.[327]


Festivals



Maha Sivaratri festival is observed in the night, usually in lighted temples or special prabha (above).


There is a Shivaratri in every lunar month on its 13th night/14th day,[328] but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks Maha Shivaratri which means "the Great Night of Shiva".[4][329]

Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world,[329] and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind.[328] It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing Yoga and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva.[329][330] The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingam shrines. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam.[4] Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances.[331] According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century.[329]

Another major festival involving Shiva worship is Kartik Purnima, commemorating Shiva's victory on the demons Tripurasura. Across India, various Shiva temples are illuminated throughout the night. Shiva icons are carried in procession in some places.[332]

Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chittirai festival in Madurai around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of Minakshi (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.[333]

Some Shaktism-related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as Annakuta and those related to Durga.[334] In Himalayan regions such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of Teej is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honor of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.[335][336]

The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became ascetic warriors during the Islamic rule period of India,[337][338] celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival.[339] This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in Prayaga (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors (Nagas) get the honor of starting the event by entering the sangam first for bathing and prayers.[339]


Beyond the Indian subcontinent and Hinduism



In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guruwhich is derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka which means “noble lord".[342] He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent.[343] However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.[344][345] Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms.[345] The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).[346]

In the pre-Islamic period on the island of Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions.[347] The medieval era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu).[348] This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.[349]

The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite Empire,[350] and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.[351] In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita").[351] He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress.[351] A panel from Dandan Oilik shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.[351][352] Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.[351] It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.[352]

Daikokuten, one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.[353] The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahākāla, the Buddhist name for Shiva.[354] Shiva is also mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna.[355] In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart.[356] In Mahayana Buddhist cosmology, Shiva resides in Akaniṣṭha, highest of Śuddhāvāsa (Pure Abodes) where Anāgāmi ("Non-returners") who are already on the path to Arhat-hood and who will attain enlightenment are born in.



The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."[357] In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen." In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar.[358]


In contemporary culture


In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in films, books, tattoos and art. He has been referred to as "the god of cool things"[359] and a "bonafide rock hero".[360]

Popular films include the Gujarati language movie Har Har Mahadev[361] and well-known books include Amish Tripathi's Shiva Trilogywhich has sold over a million copies.[359] On television, Devon Ke Dev...Mahadeva mythological drama about Shiva on the Life OK channel was among the most watched shows at its peak popularity.[362]

In the Final Fantasy videogame series, Shiva is often depicted as a benevolent ancient being of Ice Element who frequently aids the heroes against mighty foes (via summoning).[363] Shiva is also a character in the video game Dark Soulswith the name Shiva of the East.[359]


See also


References



  1. ^ a b c Zimmer (1972) pp. 124-126

  2. ^ a b c Fuller, p. 58.

  3. ^ a b Javid, Ali (January 2008). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Algora Publishing. S. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-87586-484-6.

  4. ^ a b c Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Pinguin-Bücher. pp. 137, 186. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.

  5. ^ Joanna Gottfried Williams (1981). Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India. BRILL Academic. p. 62. ISBN 90-04-06498-2.

  6. ^ Denise Cush; Catherine A. Robinson; Michael York (2008). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0.

  7. ^ a b McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Benegal. Oxford University Press, US. p. 156. ISBN 0-19-516790-2.


  8. ^ a b c Issitt & Main 2014, pp. 147, 168.


  9. ^ a b Flood 1996, pp. 17, 153

  10. ^ K. Sivaraman (1973). Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective: A Study of the Formative Concepts, Problems, and Methods of Śaiva Siddhānta. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 131. ISBN 978-81-208-1771-5.

  11. ^ Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212–226



  12. ^ Kramrisch 1981, pp. 184–188

  13. ^ Davis, pp. 113–114.


  14. ^ Shiva Samhita, e.g. translation by Mallinson.

  15. ^ Varenne, p. 82.

  16. ^ Marchand for Jnana Yoga.


  17. ^ a b c Keay, p.xxvii.

  18. ^ a b c d Monier Monier-Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, pages 1074–1076

  19. ^ Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2000). The Embodiment of Bhakti. Oxford University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-19-535190-3.

  20. ^ For use of the term śiva as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.



  21. ^ For root śarv- see: Apte, p. 910.


  22. ^ Apte, p. 927

  23. ^ For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of Śiva (śivaśāna) and which focus on the deity Śiva... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.

  24. ^ van Lysebeth, Andre (2002). Tantra: Cult of the Feminine. Weiser Books. p. 213. ISBN 9780877288459.

  25. ^ Tyagi, Ishvar Chandra (1982). Shaivism in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to C.A.D. 300. Meenakshi Prakashan. p. 81.

  26. ^ Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition, pg.47 and pg. 122.

  27. ^ Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu sahasranama, p. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust.

  28. ^ Powell, Robert (15 April 2016). Himalayan Drawings. Taylor und Francis. p. 27. ISBN 9781317709091.

  29. ^ Berreman, Gerald Duane (1963). Hindus of the Himalayas. University of California Press. p. 385.

  30. ^ For translation see: Dutt, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.

  31. ^ For translation see: Ganguli, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.

  32. ^ Chidbhavananda, "Siva Sahasranama Stotram".

  33. ^ Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 247. ISBN 0-8239-3179-X.

  34. ^ a b c d Kramrisch, p. 476.

  35. ^ For appearance of the name महादेव in the Shiva Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996, p. 297

  36. ^ Kramrisch, p. 477.

  37. ^ For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see:Sharma 1996, p. 299

  38. ^ For Parameśhvara as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.

  39. ^ Sir Monier Monier-Williams, sahasranAmanA Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford University Press (Reprinted: Motilal Banarsidass), ISBN 978-8120831056

  40. ^ Sharma 1996, p. viii–ix

  41. ^ This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clarify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p. 5.

  42. ^ For an overview of the Śatarudriya see: Kramrisch, pp. 71–74.

  43. ^ For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).

  44. ^ James A. Boon (1977). The Anthropological Romance of Bali 1597–1972. Cambridge University Press. pp. 143, 205. ISBN 978-0-521-21398-1.

  45. ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd EditionState University of University Press, pp. 24–25, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4, ... prehistoric cave paintings at Bhimbetka (from ca. 100,000 to ca. 10,000 BCE) which were discovered only in 1967...

  46. ^ Mathpal, Yashodhar (1984). Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India. Abhinav-Publikationen. p. 220. ISBN 978-81-7017-193-5.

  47. ^ Rajarajan, R.K.K. (1996). "Vṛṣabhavāhanamūrti in Literature and Art". Annali del Istituto Orientale, Naples. 56.3: 56.3: 305–10.

  48. ^ Neumayer, Erwin (2013). Prehistoric Rock Art of India. OUP India. p. 104. ISBN 9780198060987. Retrieved 1 March 2017.

  49. ^ For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood (1996), p. 29.

  50. ^ Singh, S.P., Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of Mohenjo-Daro(Approx 2500–3000 BC), Puratattva 19: 19–26. 1989

  51. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.

  52. ^ For translation of paśupati as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.

  53. ^ Ranbir Vohra (2000). The Making of India: A Historical Survey. M.E. Sharpe. p. 15.

  54. ^ Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin (1985). Ancient Indian Civilization. Arnold-Heinemann. p. 45.

  55. ^ Steven Rosen; Graham M. Schweig (2006). Essential Hinduism. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 45.

  56. ^ a b Flood (1996), pp. 28–29.



  57. ^ a b Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art. Glattbutt. p. 181. ISBN 978-9004107588.

  58. ^ Flood (2003), pp. 204–205.

  59. ^ John Keay. India: A History. Grove Press. p. 14.

  60. ^ McEvilley, Thomas (1981-03-01). "An Archaeology of Yoga". Res: Anthropology and aesthetics. 1: 51. doi:10.1086/RESv1n1ms20166655. ISSN 0277-1322.

  61. ^ Asko Parpola(2009), Deciphering the Indus Script, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521795661, pages 240–250

  62. ^ Possehl, Gregory L. (11 November 2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. pp. 140–144. ISBN 978-0-7591-1642-9.




  63. ^ a b Roger D. Woodard (2010). Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. Universität von Illinois Press. pp. 60–67, 79–80. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4.

  64. ^ Alain Daniélou (1992). Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0-89281-374-2.Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".

  65. ^ Namita Gokhale (2009). The Book of Shiva. Pinguin-Bücher. S. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-14-306761-0.

  66. ^ Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India, East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pages 71–80

  67. ^ Long, J. Bruce (1971). "Siva and Dionysos: Visions of Terror and Bliss". Numen. 18 (3): 180. doi:10.2307/3269768.

  68. ^ a b Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1980), Dionysus and Siva: Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths, History of Religions, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (Aug. – Nov., 1980), pages 81–111

  69. ^ Patrick Laude (2005). Divine Play, Sacred Laughter, and Spiritual Understanding. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 41–60. ISBN 978-1-4039-8058-8.

  70. ^ Walter Friedrich Otto; Robert B. Palmer (1965). Dionysus: Myth and Cult. Indiana University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0-253-20891-2.

  71. ^ Dineschandra Sircar (1998). The Śākta Pīṭhas. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 3 with footnote 2, 102–105. ISBN 978-81-208-0879-9.

  72. ^ Michaels, p. 316.

  73. ^ Flood (2003), p. 73.

  74. ^ For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.

  75. ^ Doniger, pp. 221–223.

  76. ^ Stella Kramrisch (1993). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-691-01930-4.

  77. ^ Stella Kramrisch (1993). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-691-01930-4.

  78. ^ For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.

  79. ^ For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15–19.

  80. ^ For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as Rudra-Śiva." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.

  81. ^ For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.

  82. ^ Kramrisch, p. 18.

  83. ^ For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets Sasipañjara and Tivaṣīmati see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.

  84. ^ "Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2010-06-06.

  85. ^ For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.

  86. ^ RV 8.49; 10.155.

  87. ^ For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.

  88. ^ Hans Loeschner (2012), Victor Mair (Editor), The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 227, pages 11, 19

  89. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1973). "The Vedic Antecedents". Śiva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford University Press US. pp. 84–9.

  90. ^ For text of RV 2.20.3a as स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता । and translation as "May that young adorable Indraever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.

  91. ^ For text of RV 6.45.17 as यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ and translation as "Indrawho has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.

  92. ^ For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: Griffith 1973, p. 310.

  93. ^ For text of RV 8.93.3 as स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥ and translation as "May Indraour auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.

  94. ^ For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.

  95. ^ RV 7.19.

  96. ^ For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.

  97. ^ Roger D. Woodard (18 August 2006). Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. Universität von Illinois Press. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4.


  98. ^ T. Richard Blurton (1993). Hindu Art. Harvard University Press. pp. 84, 103. ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5.

  99. ^ T. Richard Blurton (1993). Hindu Art. Harvard University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5.

  100. ^ Pratapaditya Pal (1986). Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700. University of California Press. pp. 75–80. ISBN 978-0-520-05991-7.

  101. ^ a b C. Sivaramamurti (2004). Satarudriya: Vibhuti Or Shiva's Iconography. Abhinav-Publikationen. pp. 41, 59. ISBN 978-81-7017-038-9.

  102. ^ a b Lisa Owen (2012). Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora. BRILL Academic. pp. 25–29. ISBN 90-04-20629-9.


  103. [[#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003205_for_date_of_Mahabhasya_see:_Peter_M_Scharf_(1996)_The_Denotation_of_Generic_Terms_in_Ancient_Indian_Philosophy:_Grammar_Nyāya_and_Mīmāṃsā_American_Philosophical_Society_'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000209-QINU`"'[[International_Standard_Book_Number|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-863-6_|978-0-87169-863-6]],_page_1_with_footnote_2_119-0|^]] Flood 2003, p. 205, for date of Mahabhasya see: Peter M. Scharf (1996), The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0-87169-863-6, page 1 with footnote 2.

  104. ^ Robert Hume, Shvetashvatara Upanishad, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 399, 403

  105. ^ M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, pages 32–36

  106. ^ [a] A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309–314; doi:10.1017/S0041977X00146531;
    [b] Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 96–97 and Chapter 9










  107. ^ DS Sharma (1990), The Philosophy of Sadhana, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791403471, pages 9–14

  108. ^ Richard Davis (2014), Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Siva in Medieval India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691603087, page 167 note 21, Quote (page 13): "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important".

  109. ^ Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805958, pages 43–44

  110. ^ JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804074, pages 252, 259


  111. ^ Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120818927, pages 16–19

  112. ^ Jan Gonda (1975). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions. BRILL Academic. pp. 3–20, 35–36, 49–51. ISBN 90-04-04330-6.

  113. ^ Upendra Thakur (1986). Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture. Abhinav-Publikationen. pp. 83–94. ISBN 978-81-7017-207-9.

  114. ^ Phyllis Granoff (2003), Mahakala's Journey: from Gana to God, Rivista degli studi orientali, Vol. 77, Fasc. 1/4 (2003), pages 95–114

  115. ^ For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see: Keay, p. 147.


  116. ^ a b c Courtright, p. 205.

  117. ^ For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.

  118. ^ Biroba, Mhaskoba und Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschichte und Umwelt von pastoralen Gottheiten in MaharastraWiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180–98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."

  119. ^ For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.

  120. ^ For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Prefaceand p. 40.



  121. ^ Surendranath Dasgupta (1973). A History of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 17, 48–49, 65–67, 155–161. ISBN 978-81-208-0416-6.

  122. ^ David N. Lorenzen (1972). The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects. University of California Press. pp. 2–5, 15–17, 38, 80. ISBN 978-0-520-01842-6.

  123. ^ a b Narendranath B. Patil (2003). The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 125–126. ISBN 978-81-208-1953-5.

  124. ^ Mark S. G. Dyczkowski (1987). The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism. Staatliche Universität von New York Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-88706-431-9.


  125. ^ David Lawrence, Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy, University of Manitoba, Canada, IEP, Section 1(d)

  126. ^ Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, ISBN 978-0141913377, pages 10–12, Quote: "(...) accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too"

  127. ^ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 23 with footnotes

  128. ^ EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004016125, pages 150–153

  129. ^ Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, ISBN 978-1577316695, page 17; for Sanskrit, see: Skanda Purana Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20–21 (Sanskrit)

  130. ^ Saroj Panthey (1987). Iconography of Śiva in Pahāṛī Paintings. Mittal Publications. p. 94. ISBN 978-81-7099-016-1.

  131. ^ Barbara Holdrege (2012). Hananya Goodman, ed. Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism. Staatliche Universität von New York Press. pp. 120–125 with footnotes. ISBN 978-1-4384-0437-0.

  132. ^ Charles Johnston (1913). The Atlantic Monthly. CXII. Riverside Press, Cambridge. pp. 835–836.

  133. ^ Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.








  134. ^ "The Rig Veda" – via Wikisource.




  135. ^ David R. Kinsley (1975). The Sword and the Flute: Kālī and Kṛṣṇa, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology. University of California Press. pp. 102 with footnote 42. ISBN 978-0-520-02675-9.Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that Durga is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".

  136. ^ Gupteshwar Prasad (1994). I.A. Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa. Sarup & Söhne pp. 117–118. ISBN 978-81-85431-37-6.

  137. ^ Jaideva Vasugupta (1991). The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment. Staatliche Universität von New York Press. p. xix. ISBN 978-0-7914-1073-8.

  138. ^ a b Gudrun Bühnemann (2003). Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions. BRILL Academic. p. 60. ISBN 978-9004129023.

  139. ^ James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. pp. 140–142, 191, 201–203. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.

  140. ^ Gavin D. Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.

  141. ^ J. N. Farquhar (1984). Outline of the Religious Literature of India. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 180. ISBN 978-81-208-2086-9.

  142. ^ Edwin F. Bryant (2007). Krishna: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-0-19-972431-4.

  143. ^ a b Frederick Asher (1981). Joanna Gottfried Williams, ed. Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India. BRILL Academic. pp. 1–4. ISBN 90-04-06498-2.

  144. ^ Kramrisch, Stella (1981). Manifestations of Shiva. Philadelphia Museum of Art. p. 22.

  145. ^ Kramrisch, Stella (1981). Manifestations of Shiva. Philadelphia Museum of Art. p. 23.

  146. ^ a b [a] Vasugupta; Jaideva (1979). Śiva Sūtras. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xv–xx. ISBN 978-81-208-0407-4.;
    [b] James Mallinson (2007). The Shiva Samhita: A Critical Edition. Yoga. pp. xiii–xiv. ISBN 978-0-9716466-5-0. OCLC 76143968.

  147. ^ a b [a] Jaideva Vasugupta (1991). The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment: A Translation of the Vijnana-bhairava with an Introduction and Notes by Jaideva Singh. Staatliche Universität von New York Press. pp. xii–xvi. ISBN 978-0-7914-1073-8.;
    [b] Vasugupta; Jaideva (1980). The Yoga of Vibration and Divine Pulsation: A Translation of the Spanda Karika with Ksemaraja's Commentary, the Spanda Nirnaya. Staatliche Universität von New York Press. pp. xxv–xxxii, 2–4. ISBN 978-0-7914-1179-7.

  148. ^ Andrew J. Nicholson (2014). Lord Siva's Song: The Isvara Gita. Staatliche Universität von New York Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-4384-5102-2.

  149. ^ David Smith (2003). The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 237–239. ISBN 978-0-521-52865-8.

  150. ^ Jaideva Vasugupta; Mark S. G. Dyczkowski (1992). The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara's Commentary, the Varttika. Staatliche Universität von New York Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-7914-1264-0.

  151. ^ For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The Purāṇas", in: Flood (2003), p. 139.

  152. ^ Ralph Metzner (1986). Opening to Inner Light: The Transformation of Human Nature and Consciousness. J.P. Tarcher. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-87477-353-8.;
    David Frawley (2009). Inner Tantric Yoga: Working with the Universal Shakti: Secrets of Mantras, Deities and Meditation. Lotus. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-940676-50-3.

  153. ^ For definition of trimurti as "the unified form" of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva and use of the phrase "the Hindu triad" see: Apte, p. 485.

  154. ^ For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti see: Jansen, p. 83.

  155. ^ The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states Jan Gonda, "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of Agniwhose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 218–219; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: [a] David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226894843, pages 4, 29
    [b] Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212–226

  156. ^ For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.

  157. ^ For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of tryambakasee: Chakravarti, pp. 37–39.

  158. ^ For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38–39.

  159. ^ For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.

  160. ^ For vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and Fire.

  161. ^ For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the Ambikās see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.

  162. ^ For the Ambikā variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.

  163. ^ For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.

  164. ^ For śekhara as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.

  165. ^ For Candraśekhara as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.

  166. ^ For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472.

  167. ^ For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.

  168. ^ For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57–58.

  169. ^ a b c d e f Flood (1996), p. 151.

  170. ^ This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of Brahmanic origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.

  171. ^ Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004178960, pages 182–183

  172. ^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 775–776, 789–790, 551. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7.

  173. ^ Chidbhavananda, p. 22.

  174. ^ For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: Sharma 1996, p. 279.

  175. ^ Kramrisch, p. 475.

  176. ^ For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.

  177. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 290

  178. ^ See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.

  179. ^ For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.

  180. ^ a b Kramrisch, p. 473.

  181. ^ For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name Gaṅgādhara see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.

  182. ^ For description of the Gaṅgādhara form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.

  183. ^ For Shiva supporting Gaṅgā upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.

  184. ^ Flood (1996), p. 151


  185. ^ Suresh Chandra 1998, p. 309.


  186. ^ Michaels, p. 218.

  187. ^ For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.

  188. ^ Jansen, p. 44.

  189. ^ Jansen, p. 25.

  190. ^ For use by Kāpālikassee: Apte, p. 461.

  191. ^ C. Sivaramamurti (1963). South Indian Bronzes. Lalit Kalā Akademi. p. 41.

  192. ^ John A. Grimes (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. Staatliche Universität von New York Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7914-3067-5.

  193. ^ Prabhavati C. Reddy (2014). Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India. Routledge. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-1-317-80631-8.

  194. ^ For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99–105.

  195. ^ For spelling of alternate proper names Nandī and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.

  196. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 291

  197. ^ Kramrisch, p. 479.

  198. ^ For the name Kailāsagirivāsī (Sanskrit कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranamasee: Sharma 1996, p. 281.

  199. ^ For identification of Mount Kailāsa as the central lingasee: Stutley (1985), p. 62.

  200. ^ Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola

  201. ^ Keay, p. 33.

  202. ^ For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.

  203. ^ George Michell (1977). The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. Universität von Chicago Press. S. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-226-53230-1.

  204. ^ For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.

  205. ^ For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: Sharma 1988, pp. 20–21.

  206. ^ For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.

  207. ^ Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionarys.v. "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.



  208. ^ Kramrisch, p. 474.


  209. ^ Apte, p. 727, left column.

  210. ^ Kramrisch, p. 481.

  211. ^ Flood (1996), p. 92.

  212. ^ Chakravarti 1986, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.

  213. ^ For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150–151.

  214. ^ For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.

  215. ^ For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.

  216. ^ For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.

  217. ^ For UmāpatiUmākānta and Umādhava as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: Sharma 1996, p. 278.

  218. ^ For Umā as the oldest name, and variants including Pārvatīsee: Chakravarti, p. 40.

  219. ^ For Pārvatī identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.

  220. ^ Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri

  221. ^ For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, Preface.

  222. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1999). Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India. London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 263–5. ISBN 978-0-226-15641-5.

  223. ^ Vanita, Ruth; Kidwai, Saleem (2001). Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-312-29324-6.

  224. ^ Pattanaik, Devdutt (2001). The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-56023-181-3.

  225. ^ See Mohini#Relationship with Shiva for details

  226. ^ RN Saletore (1981). Indian Witchcraft. Abhinav-Publikationen. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-391-02480-9.

  227. ^ Vettam Mani (1975). Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 62, 515–6. ISBN 978-0-8426-0822-0.

  228. ^ Wendy Doniger (2005). The Bedtrick: Tales of Sex and Masquerade. Universität von Chicago Press. pp. 72, 206. ISBN 978-0-226-15643-9.

  229. ^ For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110–111.

  230. ^ For interpretation of the naṭarāja form see: Zimmer, pp. 151–157.

  231. ^ For names Nartaka (Sanskrit नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: Sharma 1996, p. 289.

  232. ^ For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.

  233. ^ For popularity of the nṛtyamūrti and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.

  234. ^ Kramrisch, Stella (1994). "Siva's Dance". The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 439.

  235. ^ Klostermaier, Klaus K. "Shiva the Dancer". Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Drücken Sie. p. 151.

  236. ^ Massey, Reginald. "India's Kathak Dance". India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future. Abhinav-Publikationen. p. 8.

  237. ^ a b Moorthy, Vijaya (2001). Romance of the Raga. Abhinav-Publikationen. p. 96.

  238. ^ Leeming, David Adams (2001). A Dictionary of Asian Mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 45.

  239. ^ Radha, Sivananda (1992). "Mantra of Muladhara Chakra". Kuṇḍalinī Yoga. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 304.

  240. ^ "Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 2 Verse 23". 23 November 2010. Archived from the original on 23 November 2010.

  241. ^ For iconographic description of the Dakṣiṇāmūrti form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.

  242. ^ For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.

  243. ^ For characterization of Dakṣiṇāmūrti as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.

  244. ^ For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as Dakṣiṇāmūrtisee: Chakravarti, p. 155.

  245. ^ Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.

  246. ^ For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p.46.

  247. ^ For the Tripurāntaka form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.

  248. ^ Michaels, p. 216.

  249. ^ Flood (1996), p. 29.

  250. ^ Tattwananda, pp. 49–52.

  251. ^ a b c Lingam: Hindu symbol Encyclopædia Britannica

  252. ^ Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, page 901

  253. ^ Yudit Kornberg Greenberg (2008). Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions. ABC-CLIO. pp. 572–573. ISBN 978-1-85109-980-1.

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  255. ^ Sen, Amiya P. (2006). "Editor's Introduction". The Indispensable Vivekananda. Orient Blackswan. pp. 25–26.

  256. ^ Sivananda, Swami (1996). "Worship of Siva Linga". Lord Siva and His Worship. The Divine Life Trust Society.

  257. ^ Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout (Spring 2008). "Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies" (PDF). Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies. 7 (19): 118–143. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 August 2009. Retrieved 18 January 2009.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)

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  259. ^ Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). "God, the Father". Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9.

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  261. ^ Swati Mitra (2011). Omkareshwar and Maheshwar. Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government. p. 25. ISBN 978-93-80262-24-6.

  262. ^ For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.

  263. ^ It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.

  264. ^ For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182–189.

  265. ^ For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.

  266. ^ For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.

  267. ^ For the epithets pañcamukha and pañcavaktraboth of which mean "five faces", as epithets of Śivasee: Apte, p. 578, middle column.

  268. ^ For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.

  269. ^ Kramrisch, p. 184.

  270. ^ Quotation from Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.

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