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Alternative Medizin - Wikipedia




Form der nichtwissenschaftlichen Heilung


Alternative Medizin
AM, Komplementärmedizin und Alternativmedizin (CAM), Komplementärmedizin, Heterodoxmedizin, Integrative Medizin (IM), Komplementärmedizin und Integrative Medizin (CIM), New Age Medizin, unkonventionelle Medizin, unorthodoxe Medizin
 Altmed-Funktion 2.svg
Wie alternative Behandlungen "wirken":


a) Missverständnis natürlicher Verlauf - das Individuum wird ohne Behandlung besser.

b) Placebo-Effekt oder falscher Behandlungseffekt - eine Person erhält eine "alternative Therapie" und ist überzeugt, dass sie helfen wird. Die Überzeugung lässt sie besser werden.

c) Nocebo-Effekt - Eine Person ist überzeugt, dass eine Standardbehandlung nicht funktioniert und eine alternative Behandlung funktionieren wird. Dies verringert die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass eine Standardbehandlung funktioniert, während der Placebo-Effekt der "Alternative" erhalten bleibt.

d) Keine unerwünschten Wirkungen - Die Standardbehandlung wird durch eine "alternative" Behandlung ersetzt, die unerwünschte Wirkungen, aber auch Verbesserungen, beseitigt.

e) Interferenz - Die Standardbehandlung wird durch etwas "ergänzt", das ihre Wirkung stört. Dies kann sowohl eine schlechtere Wirkung als auch verminderte (oder sogar erhöhte) Nebenwirkungen verursachen, die als "helfend" interpretiert werden können.



Forscher wie Epidemiologen, klinische Statistiker und Pharmakologen nutzen klinische Studien, um solche Effekte zu vermeiden, und Ärzte können nur das anbieten, was sich gezeigt hat. "Alternative Behandlungen" lehnen es häufig ab, Versuche durchzuführen oder dies absichtlich zu erschweren.

Alternative Medizin Fringe Medicine Pseudomedizin oder einfach fragwürdige Medizin ist die Förderung oder Anwendung von Praktiken, die unbewiesen, widerlegt, nicht nachweisbar sind oder in Bezug auf ihre Wirkung übermäßig schädlich sind - im Versuch, die heilenden Wirkungen der Medizin zu erreichen. Sie unterscheidet sich von der experimentellen Medizin darin, dass diese verantwortliche Untersuchung durchführt und verworfen wird, wenn sie unwirksam ist. Der wissenschaftliche Konsens ist, dass alternative Therapien entweder nicht funktionieren oder nicht funktionieren können. In einigen Fällen werden Naturgesetze durch ihre grundlegenden Ansprüche verletzt. In anderen Fällen ist die Behandlung so viel schlimmer, dass sie unethisch ist. Alternative Praktiken, Produkte und Therapien reichen von solchen, die einfach unwirksam sind, bis zu solchen mit bekannten schädlichen und toxischen Wirkungen.

Alternative Therapien können für eine wahrgenommene Verbesserung durch Placeboeffekte, eine verringerte Verwendung oder einen Einfluss der medizinischen Behandlung (und daher entweder verringerte Nebenwirkungen oder Nocebo-Effekte gegenüber der Standardbehandlung) oder den natürlichen Verlauf des Zustands oder der Krankheit anerkannt werden. Alternative Behandlung ist nicht dasselbe wie experimentelle Behandlung oder traditionelle Medizin, obwohl beide auf alternative Weise missbraucht werden können. Alternative oder Komplementärmedizin ist gefährlich, weil sie Menschen davon abhalten kann, die bestmögliche Behandlung zu erhalten, und zu einem falschen Verständnis des Körpers und der Wissenschaft führen kann.

Alternative Medizin wird von einer beträchtlichen Anzahl von Menschen verwendet, obwohl ihre Beliebtheit oft überbewertet ist. Große Mittel werden für die Erprobung alternativer Medizin verwendet, wobei allein die US-Regierung mehr als 2,5 Milliarden US-Dollar ausgibt. Keiner von ihnen hat einen Effekt gezeigt, der über die falsche Behandlung hinausgeht, und die meisten Studien, die einen Effekt zeigten, waren statistische Schwankungen. Alternative Medizin ist eine hochrentable Branche mit einer starken Lobby. Diese Tatsache wird von den Medien oft übersehen oder absichtlich verborgen gehalten, wobei alternative Praktiken im Vergleich zu "Big Pharma" positiv dargestellt werden. Die Lobby hat erfolgreich dafür gedrängt, dass alternative Therapien weit weniger reguliert werden als herkömmliche Medizin. Alternative Therapien können sogar erlaubt sein, die Anwendung zu fördern, wenn nachweislich keine Wirkung vorliegt, nur eine Tradition der Anwendung. Die Regulierung und Zulassung von Anbietern alternativer Medizin und Gesundheitsdienstleistungen variiert zwischen und innerhalb der Länder. Obwohl Gesetze gesetzlich verboten sind, alternative Therapien für die Krebsbehandlung zu vermarkten oder zu fördern, werden sie von vielen Praktikern gefördert. Alternative Medizin wird kritisiert, weil sie die schwächsten Mitglieder der Gesellschaft ausnutzt.

Die Terminologie hat sich im Laufe der Zeit verschoben, was das bevorzugte Branding von Praktikern widerspiegelt. Zum Beispiel wurde die Abteilung für Nationale Institute der Gesundheit der Vereinigten Staaten, die alternative Medizin studiert und derzeit als Nationales Zentrum für komplementäre und integrative Gesundheit bezeichnet wird, als Office of Alternative Medicine gegründet und in Nationales Komplementärzentrum umbenannt und Alternative Medicine bevor sie ihren heutigen Namen erhalten. Therapien werden oft als "natürlich" oder "ganzheitlich" bezeichnet, im Gegensatz zu konventioneller Medizin, die "künstlich" und "eng" ist - Aussagen, die absichtlich irreführend sind. Wenn alternative Therapien zusammen mit einer funktionellen medizinischen Behandlung angewendet werden, "ergänzen" sie sich nicht (verbessern die Wirkung der Behandlung oder mildern die Nebenwirkungen der Behandlung). Signifikante Wechselwirkungen zwischen Medikamenten, die durch alternative Therapien hervorgerufen werden, können die funktionale Behandlung negativ beeinflussen, indem verschreibungspflichtige Medikamente weniger wirksam werden, z. B. die Interferenz von pflanzlichen Präparaten mit Warfarin.


Alternative Diagnosen und Behandlungen gehören weder zur Medizin noch zu naturwissenschaftlichen Lehrplänen an medizinischen Fakultäten. Sie werden auch nicht in einer auf wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnissen oder Erfahrungen basierenden Praxis angewendet. Alternative Therapien basieren oft auf religiösem Glauben, Tradition, Aberglauben, dem Glauben an übernatürliche Energien, Pseudowissenschaften, Denkfehlern, Propaganda, Betrug oder Lügen. Alternative Medizin basiert auf irreführenden Aussagen, Quacksalberei, Pseudowissenschaft, Antiscience, Betrug und einer schlechten wissenschaftlichen Methodik. Die Förderung der alternativen Medizin wurde als gefährlich und unethisch bezeichnet. Das Testen alternativer Medizin ohne wissenschaftliche Grundlage wurde als Verschwendung knapper Forschungsressourcen bezeichnet. Kritiker behaupten, "es gibt wirklich keine alternative Medizin, nur Medizin, die funktioniert und Medizin, die nicht funktioniert", dass die Idee von "alternativen" Behandlungen paradox ist, da jede Behandlung nachweislich "Medizin" ist. .


Definitionen und Terminologie [ edit ]


Alternative medicine edit ]


Alternative medicine wird lose als Satz von definiert Produkte, Praktiken und Theorien, von denen geglaubt wird, dass sie die heilende Wirkung der Medizin haben, [n 1] [n 2] deren Wirksamkeit jedoch mit wissenschaftlichen Methoden nicht eindeutig nachgewiesen wurde, [n 1] [n 3] [4] [19650020] [5] [19650021] [6] [19650022] [7] [7] oder deren Theorie und Praxis kein Teil der Biomedizin ist. [n 2] [n 4] [n 5] [n 6] oder deren Theorien oder Praktiken durch wissenschaftliche Beweise oder wissenschaftliche Prinzipien, die in der Biomedizin verwendet werden, direkt widersprochen werden. [4] [5] [11] "Biomedizin" oder "Medizin" ist ein Teil der medizinischen Wissenschaft, der die Prinzipien der Biologie, Physiologie, Molekularbiologie, Biophysik und anderer Naturwissenschaften in der klinischen Praxis anwendet, wobei wissenschaftliche Methoden zur Feststellung der Wirksamkeit dieser Praxis verwendet werden. Im Gegensatz zur Medizin [n 4] stammt ein alternatives Produkt oder eine alternative Praxis nicht aus der Verwendung wissenschaftlicher Methoden, sondern kann stattdessen auf Hörensagen, Religion, Tradition, Aberglauben, Glauben an übernatürliche Energien, Pseudowissenschaften, Denkfehler, basieren. Propaganda, Betrug oder andere unwissenschaftliche Quellen. [n 3] [1] [4] [5] [5]

In Allgemeine Richtlinien für Forschung und Forschung Evaluation of Traditional Medicine im Jahr 2000 von der Weltgesundheitsorganisation (WHO) veröffentlicht, Komplementäre und Alternative Medizin wurden als breite Palette von Gesundheitspraktiken definiert, die nicht Teil der eigenen Tradition des Landes sind und nicht in die Dominante integriert sind Gesundheitssystem. [12]

Der Ausdruck bezieht sich auch auf eine Vielzahl von verwandten und nicht verwandten Produkten, Praktiken und Theorien, die von biologisch plausiblen Praktiken und Produkten reichen d Praktiken mit einigen Beweisen, Praktiken und Theorien, denen die Grundlagenforschung oder eindeutige Beweise direkt widersprechen, und Produkte, die sich als unwirksam oder sogar toxisch und schädlich erwiesen haben. [n 2] [14] [14] [19659034] [15]

Die Begriffe alternative Medizin Komplementärmedizin integrative Medizin, ganzheitliche Medizin natürlich medicine unorthodox medicine fringe medicine unkonventionelle Medizin und New Age-Medizin werden austauschbar verwendet, da sie die gleiche Bedeutung haben und sind in den meisten Zusammenhängen fast gleichbedeutend. [16] [17] [18] [19]


Marcia Angell: "Es kann nicht zwei Arten von Medizin geben - konventionell und alternativ ".

Die Bedeutung des Ausdrucks" Alternative "in den Ausdrücken Alternative "alternative Medizin" ist nicht, dass es eine wirksame Alternative zur medizinischen Wissenschaft ist, obwohl einige Promotoren der alternativen Medizin die lose Terminologie verwenden können, um den Anschein der Wirksamkeit zu erwecken. [4] [20] Eine lose Terminologie kann auch verwendet werden, um darauf hinzuweisen, dass es eine Dichotomie gibt, wenn nicht zB die Ausdrücke "westliche Medizin" und "östliche Medizin" verwendet werden, um darauf hinzuweisen, dass der Unterschied ein kultureller Unterschied zwischen dem asiatischen Osten und dem europäischen ist West, statt dass der Unterschied zwischen evidenzbasierter Medizin und nicht funktionierenden Behandlungen besteht. [4]


Komplementäre oder integrative Medizin edit ]


Komplementäre Medizin ( CM ) oder integrative Medizin ( IM ), wenn alternative Medizin zusammen mit funktioneller medizinischer Behandlung verwendet wird in der Überzeugung, dass es die Wirkung von Behandlungen verbessert. [n 7] [1] [22] [23] [24] [24] Allerdings können signifikante Wechselwirkungen zwischen Medikamenten, die durch alternative Therapien hervorgerufen werden, die Behandlung negativ beeinflussen und die Wirksamkeit der Therapien, insbesondere die Krebstherapie, beeinträchtigen. [25] [26] Beide Begriffe beziehen sich auf die Verwendung alternativer medizinischer Behandlungen neben der konventionellen Medizin, [27] [28] [29] . Ein Beispiel dafür ist die Verwendung von Akupunktur (Einstechen von Nadeln im Körper) der Fluss einer übernatürlichen Energie) in Verbindung mit der Verwendung wissenschaftsbasierter Medizin in dem Glauben, dass die Akupunktur die Wirksamkeit erhöht oder die wissenschaftsbasierte Medizin "ergänzt". [29]

CAM ist eine Abkürzung der Phrase Komplementäre und alternative Medizin . [30] [31] Es wurde auch sCAM oder SCAM mit dem Zusatz "sogenannter" oder "Ergänzungen" genannt. [32] [33] Die Begriffe Gleichgewicht und Ganzheitlichkeit werden häufig verwendet, wobei behauptet wird, eine "ganze" Person zu berücksichtigen, im Gegensatz zum angeblichen Reduktionismus der Schulmedizin. Aufgrund seiner vielen Namen wurde das Feld wegen intensiver Umbenennung von im Wesentlichen gleichen Praktiken kritisiert. [16]


"Allopathic medicine" [



Allopathic Medizin oder Allopathie ist ein Ausdruck, der häufig von Homöopathen und Befürwortern anderer Formen alternativer Medizin verwendet wird, um sich auf Medizin zu beziehen. Es wurde verwendet, um die traditionelle europäische Praxis der heroischen Medizin zu beschreiben, [34] später wurde sie jedoch weiterhin verwendet, um alles zu beschreiben, was keine Homöopathie war. [34]

Allopathie bezieht sich auf Allopathie zur Verwendung von pharmakologisch aktiven Mitteln oder medizinischen Interventionen zur Behandlung oder Unterdrückung von Symptomen oder pathophysiologischen Prozessen von Krankheiten oder Zuständen. [35] Die deutsche Version des Wortes allopathisch wurde 1810 vom Homöopathie-Schöpfer Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843) geprägt. [36] Das Wort wurde aus allo- (anders) und -pathisch (bezogen auf eine Krankheit oder eine Behandlungsmethode) geprägt. [37] In Kreisen der Alternativmedizin wird der Ausdruck "allopathische Medizin" immer noch verwendet, um "die breite Kategorie der medizinischen Praxis zu bezeichnen, die manchmal als westliche Medizin, Biomedizin, evidenzbasierte Medizin oder moderne Medizin bezeichnet wird" (siehe den Artikel über wissenschaftliche Medizin). [38]

Die Verwendung dieses Begriffs ist unter Homöopathen weit verbreitet und hat sich auf andere alternative Medizinpraktiken ausgeweitet. Die Bedeutung, die das Etikett impliziert, wurde von der Schulmedizin nie akzeptiert und gilt als abwertend. [39] In jüngerer Zeit haben einige Quellen den Begriff "allopathisch" verwendet, insbesondere amerikanische Quellen, die zwischen Doctors of Medicine (MD) und Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) in den Vereinigten Staaten unterscheiden wollen [36] [40] ] William Jarvis, ein Experte für alternative Medizin und öffentliches Gesundheitswesen, [41] erklärt: "Obwohl viele moderne Therapien so ausgelegt werden können, dass sie einem allopathischen Grundprinzip entsprechen (z. B. mit einem Abführmittel, um Verstopfung zu lindern), der Standardmedizin hat nie einem allopathischen Prinzip die Treue gehalten ", und das Label" Allopath "wurde von Anfang an als" hochgradig abwertend "angesehen. [42]

Viele herkömmliche medizinische Behandlungen passen nicht zum Nominalwert Definition der Allopathie da sie versuchen, Krankheiten vorzubeugen oder deren Ursache zu beseitigen. [43] [44]


Traditionelle Medizin [ edit ]



Traditionelle Medizin bezieht sich auf die vorwissenschaftlichen Praktiken einer bestimmten Kultur, im Gegensatz zu dem, was normalerweise in anderen Kulturen praktiziert wird, in denen die medizinische Wissenschaft dominiert.

"Östliche Medizin" bezieht sich typischerweise auf die traditionellen Arzneimittel Asiens, in die die konventionelle Biomedizin viel später eingedrungen ist.


Ganzheitliche Medizin [ edit ]


Die Wörter balance und Holismus werden häufig zusammen mit oder ergänzendem verwendet. integrative Medizin die behauptet, eine "ganze" Person im Gegensatz zum vermeintlichen Reduktionismus der Medizin zu berücksichtigen. Aufgrund seiner zahlreichen Namen wurde das Feld wegen intensiver Umbenennung von im Wesentlichen gleichen Praktiken kritisiert. [16]


Probleme mit der Definition [


of the science [45] [46] und biomedizinische Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft [3] sagen, dass es nicht sinnvoll ist, eine alternative Medizin zu definieren, die sich von einer konventionellen Medizin unterscheidet, die Ausdrücke "Schulmedizin", "Alternativmedizin", "Komplementärmedizin", "Integrative Medizin" und "Ganzheitliche Medizin" beziehen sich überhaupt nicht auf Medizin. [45] [3] [3] [19659076] [46] [47]

Andere, sowohl in der biomedizinischen als auch in der CAM-Gemeinschaft, behaupten, dass CAM aufgrund der Vielfalt der darin enthaltenen Theorien und Praktiken nicht genau definiert werden kann da sich die Grenzen zwischen CAM und Biomedizin überschneiden, sind p oder ändern und ändern. Der Ausdruck "Komplementärmedizin und alternative Medizin" (CAM) widersetzt sich einer einfachen Definition, da die Gesundheitssysteme und -praktiken, auf die er sich bezieht, diffus sind und seine Grenzen schlecht definiert sind. [14] [n 8] Als alternativ eingestufte Gesundheitspraktiken können sich in ihrer historischen Herkunft, theoretischen Grundlage, Diagnosetechnik, therapeutischen Praxis und ihrem Verhältnis zum medizinischen Mainstream unterscheiden. Einige alternative Therapien, einschließlich der traditionellen chinesischen Medizin (TCM) und Ayurveda, haben antike Ursprünge in Ost- oder Südasien und sind völlig alternative medizinische Systeme; [52] andere, wie die Homöopathie und die Chiropraktik, haben ihren Ursprung in Europa oder den Vereinigten Staaten und entstand im achtzehnten und neunzehnten Jahrhundert. Einige, wie Osteopathie und Chiropraktik, verwenden manipulative physikalische Behandlungsmethoden; Andere, wie Meditation und Gebet, basieren auf Eingriffen zwischen Körper und Geist. Behandlungen, die an einem Ort als Alternativen betrachtet werden, können an einem anderen als konventionell betrachtet werden. [55] Daher wird Chiropraktik in Dänemark nicht als Alternative betrachtet, und in den Vereinigten Staaten wird auch die osteopathische Medizin nicht länger als alternative Therapie angesehen. [19459118[55]

Kritiker sagen, der Ausdruck täuschte, weil dies impliziert eine wirksame Alternative zur wissenschaftsbasierten Medizin, und komplementäres täuscht, weil sie impliziert, dass die Behandlung die Wirksamkeit von (komplementärer) wissenschaftsbasierter Medizin steigert, während alternative Arzneimittel, die getestet wurden, fast nie messbar sind positiver Effekt im Vergleich zu einem Placebo [4] [56] [57] [58]


Verschiedene Arten von Definitionen []


Ein gemeinsames Merkmal aller Definitionen der Alternativmedizin ist die Bezeichnung "anders als" der konventionellen Medizin. So heißt es in der vielfach genannten deskriptiven Definition der Komplementärmedizin und Alternativmedizin, die vom Nationalen Zentrum für Komplementäre und Integrative Gesundheit (NCCIH) der National Institutes of Health (NIH) entwickelt wurde, "eine Gruppe unterschiedlicher medizinischer und gesundheitlicher Versorgung" Systeme, Praktiken und Produkte, die im Allgemeinen nicht als Bestandteil der Schulmedizin gelten. " [61] Für konventionelle Ärzte folgt daraus nicht zwangsläufig, dass weder sie noch ihre Praktizierenden als Alternative mehr betrachtet werden. [n 9]

Einige Definitionen versuchen, die alternative Medizin in Bezug auf ihre soziale und politische Marginalität zu spezifizieren Gesundheitsfürsorge. [64] Dies kann sich auf die mangelnde Unterstützung beziehen, die alternative Therapien von der medizinischen Einrichtung und verwandten Stellen erhalten, was den Zugang zu Forschungsmitteln, die sympathische Berichterstattung in der medizinischen Presse oder die Aufnahme in den medizinischen Standardlehrplan betrifft. [64] Die British Medical Association (BMA), eine von vielen Berufsverbänden, die versucht haben, die Alternativmedizin zu definieren, gab 1993 an, dass sie [...] die nicht weit verbreiteten Behandlungsformen erwähnte von den klassischen Gesundheitsberufen verwendet, und deren Fähigkeiten werden nicht als Teil des Grundstudiums der konventionellen medizinischen und paramedizinischen Gesundheitskurse unterrichtet. " [65] In einem US-amerikanischen Kontext, eine einflussreiche Definition, die 1993 von dem in Harvard ansässigen Arzt geprägt wurde, [66] David M. Eisenberg, [67] charakterisierte Alternativmedizin "als Interventionen, die weder allgemein gelehrt wurden in medizinischen Schulen noch allgemein in US-Krankenhäusern verfügbar. " [68] Diese deskriptiven Definitionen sind in der heutigen Zeit unzureichend, wenn einige konventionelle Ärzte alternative medizinische Behandlungen anbieten und CAM-Einführungskurse oder -module als Teil der standardmäßigen medizinischen Grundausbildung angeboten werden können. [69] Alternative Medizin wird in mehr unterrichtet Über 50 Prozent der medizinischen Schulen in den USA und zunehmend auch die US-amerikanischen Krankenversicherer sind bereit, CAM-Therapien zu erstatten. 1999 gaben 7,7% der US-Krankenhäuser an, irgendeine Form der CAM-Therapie zu verwenden; Dieser Anteil war bis 2008 auf 37,7% gestiegen. [71]

Ein Expertengremium auf einer Konferenz, die 1995 vom US-amerikanischen Amt für alternative Medizin (OAM) veranstaltet wurde, [72] [19469083] ] [n 11] entwickelte eine theoretische Definition der Alternativmedizin [72] als "ein weites Feld von Heilressourcen ... außer denjenigen, die dem politisch dominanten Gesundheitssystem einer bestimmten Gesellschaft oder Kultur innewohnen in einer bestimmten historischen Periode ". [74] Diese Definition wurde von CAM-Forschern weitgehend übernommen, [72] die von offiziellen Regierungsbehörden wie dem britischen Gesundheitsministerium [75] zitiert wurden, als Definition der Cochrane Collaboration [76] und mit einigen Modifikationen [ dubious diskutiert wurde 2005 im Konsensusbericht des US Institute of Medicine bevorzugt. Komplementärmedizin und Alternativmedizin in den Vereinigten Staaten [n 2]

Die Definition der OAM-Konferenz von 1995, eine Erweiterung der Formulierung von Eisenberg aus dem Jahr 1993, schweigt zu Fragen der medizinischen Wirksamkeit von Alternativen Therapien. [77] Ihre Befürworter behaupten, dass damit der Relativismus in Bezug auf unterschiedliche Formen des medizinischen Wissens vermieden wird, und obwohl dies im Wesentlichen eine politische Definition ist, sollte dies nicht bedeuten, dass die Dominanz der Mainstream-Biomedizin ausschließlich auf politischen Kräften beruht. [77] Nach dieser Definition kann alternative und allgemeine Medizin nur in Bezug auf das unterschieden werden, was "dem politisch dominanten Gesundheitssystem einer bestimmten Kulturgesellschaft innewohnt". [78] Es gibt jedoch weder eine verlässliche Methode, um Kulturen und Subkulturen zu unterscheiden, noch als dominant oder untergeordnet zu betrachten, noch irgendwelche akzeptierten Kriterien, um die Dominanz einer kulturellen Einheit zu bestimmen. [78] Wenn die Kultur eines politisch dominanten Gesundheitssystems den Perspektiven derjenigen, die mit der medizinischen Leitung führender Gesundheitseinrichtungen und -programme beauftragt sind, gleichwertig ist, erkennt die Definition das Trennungspotential weder innerhalb einer solchen Elite noch zwischen einer Gesundheitselite und die breitere Bevölkerung. [78]

Normative Definitionen unterscheiden die alternative Medizin vom biomedizinischen Mainstream bei der Bereitstellung von Therapien, die nicht bewiesen, nicht validiert oder unwirksam sind und Theorien ohne anerkannte wissenschaftliche Grundlage unterstützen. Diese Definitionen kennzeichnen Praktiken als alternative Medizin, wenn sie unabhängig davon oder anstelle der evidenzbasierten Medizin als heilende Wirkungen der Medizin bezeichnet werden, jedoch nicht auf Beweisen beruhen, die mit der wissenschaftlichen Methode gesammelt wurden. [19460106 [3] [27] [28] [61] [80] [80] Als Beispiel für diese Perspektive wurde 1998 ein von Marcia Angell, einem früheren Herausgeber von The New England Journal of Medicine gemeinsam verfasstes Editorial veröffentlicht:


Es ist an der Zeit, dass die wissenschaftliche Gemeinschaft aufhört, der alternativen Medizin freien Lauf zu lassen. Es kann nicht zwei Arten von Medizin geben - konventionelle und alternative. Es gibt nur Arzneimittel, die ausreichend getestet wurden, und Arzneimittel, die dies nicht getan haben, Arzneimittel, die funktionieren, und Arzneimittel, die funktionieren können oder nicht. Wenn eine Behandlung gründlich getestet wurde, spielt es keine Rolle mehr, ob sie zu Beginn als Alternative betrachtet wurde. Wenn es als angemessen sicher und wirksam befunden wird, wird es akzeptiert. Behauptungen, Spekulationen und Zeugnisse ersetzen jedoch nicht Beweise. Alternative Behandlungen sollten wissenschaftlichen Tests unterzogen werden, die nicht weniger streng sind als die für konventionelle Behandlungen erforderlichen. [3]


Diese Trennungslinie wurde kritisiert, jedoch sind nicht alle Formen der üblichen medizinischen Praxis ausreichend belegt worden Leistungsnachweise, [n 4] [81] und es ist in den meisten Fällen unwahrscheinlich, dass herkömmliche Therapien, wenn sie sich als unwirksam erweisen, jemals als CAM eingestuft werden würden. [72]

In ähnlicher Weise verwendet die öffentliche Informationswebsite des National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) des Commonwealth of Australia die Abkürzung "CAM" für eine Vielzahl von Gesundheitspraktiken, Therapien, Verfahren und Geräten nicht im Bereich der Schulmedizin. Im australischen Kontext soll dies Akupunktur umfassen; Aromatherapie; Chiropraktik; Homöopathie; Massage; Meditations- und Entspannungstherapien; Naturheilkunde; Osteopathie; Reflexzonenmassage, traditionelle chinesische Medizin; und die Verwendung von Vitaminpräparaten. [83]

Das "Council for Alternative Medicine" (Dänisches Gesundheitsministerium) (Sundhedsstyrelsens Råd für Alternativ Behandling (SRAB)), eine unabhängige Einrichtung des National Board of Gesundheit (Dänisch: Sundhedsstyrelsen ), verwendet den Begriff "alternative Medizin" für:


  • Behandlungen, die von Therapeuten durchgeführt werden, die keine zugelassenen Angehörigen der Heilberufe sind.

  • Behandlungen, die von zugelassenen Angehörigen der Gesundheitsberufe durchgeführt werden, die jedoch auf Methoden beruhen, die sonst außerhalb des Gesundheitssystems verwendet werden. Personen ohne Zulassung im Gesundheitswesen dürfen [also] die Behandlungen durchführen. [84]

Befürworter einer Evidenzbasis für die Medizin [n 12] [86] [86] [88] [89] wie die Cochrane Collaboration (gegründet 1993 und ab 2011 als Input für WHO-Resolutionen) nehmen Stellung, dass alle systematische Reviews von Behandlungen, ob "Mainstream" oder "Alternative" sollte den aktuellen Standards der wissenschaftlichen Methode entsprechen. [90] In einer Studie mit dem Titel Entwicklung und Klassifizierung einer operativen Definition der Komplementär- und Alternativmedizin für die Cochrane Collaboration (2011) wurde vorgeschlagen, dass Indikatoren für die Zulassung einer Therapie die staatliche Zulassung von Ärzten, die Deckung durch die Krankenversicherung, Zustimmungserklärungen von Regierungsbehörden und Empfehlungen im Rahmen einer Praxisrichtlinie; und wenn etwas gegenwärtig eine akzeptierte Standardtherapie ist, dann wird es wahrscheinlich nicht allgemein als CAM angesehen. [72]




Die Alternativmedizin besteht aus einer breiten Palette von Gesundheitspraktiken, Produkten und Therapien. Das gemeinsame Merkmal ist ein Anspruch auf Heilung, der nicht auf der wissenschaftlichen Methode basiert. Praktiken der alternativen Medizin sind in ihren Grundlagen und Methodiken vielfältig. [61] Praktiken der alternativen Medizin können nach ihrem kulturellen Ursprung oder nach den Arten von Glauben klassifiziert werden, auf denen sie basieren. [1] [4] [11] [19650111] [19650111] [19650111] [19640172] Methoden können traditionelle medizinische Praktiken einer bestimmten Kultur, Volkswissen, Aberglauben, spirituellen Glauben, Glauben an übernatürliche Energien (Antiscience), Pseudowissenschaften, Denkfehler, Propaganda, Betrug, neue oder andere Konzepte von Gesundheit und Krankheit umfassen oder darauf basieren. und andere Grundlagen als durch wissenschaftliche Methoden nachgewiesen. [1] [4] [5] [11] Unterschiedliche Kulturen haben möglicherweise ihre eigenen traditionellen oder auf Überzeugungen basierenden Praktiken, die in den letzten Jahren oder über Tausende von Jahren entwickelt wurden, sowie spezifische Praktiken oder ganze Praktiken.



Unwissenschaftliche Glaubenssysteme [ edit ]


Alternative Medizin, wie die Verwendung von Naturheilkunde oder Homöopathie anstelle der konventionellen Medizin, basiert auf Glaubenssystemen, die nicht wissenschaftlich fundiert sind. 19460172]









Vorgeschlagener Mechanismus
Ausgaben
Naturheilkunde
Die naturheilkundliche Medizin basiert auf der Überzeugung, dass der Körper sich selbst mit einer übernatürlichen Lebensenergie heilt, die körperliche Prozesse steuert. [92] In Konflikt mit dem Paradigma der evidenzbasierten Medizin. [93] Viele Naturheilkundler haben sich gegen die Impfung ausgesprochen, [94] und "wissenschaftliche Beweise stützen keine Behauptungen, dass Naturheilverfahren Krebs oder andere Krankheiten heilen können". [95]
Homöopathie
Ein Glaube, dass eine Substanz, die die Symptome einer Krankheit bei gesunden Menschen verursacht, bei kranken Menschen ähnliche Symptome heilt. [n 13] Entwickelt vor dem Wissen über Atome und Moleküle oder der grundlegenden Chemie, was dies zeigt eine wiederholte Verdünnung, wie sie in der Homöopathie praktiziert wird, produziert nur Wasser, und diese Homöopathie ist wissenschaftlich nicht gültig. edit ]
" Sie sagten mir, wenn ich nachts 1000 Tabletten nehmen sollte, würde ich am Morgen etwas anderes machen ", eine Satire aus dem frühen 19. Jahrhundert auf Morison's Vegetable Pills, eine alternative Medizinergänzung.

Traditionelle ethnische Systeme [ edit ]



Alternative medizinische Systeme können auf traditionellen basieren Medizinpraktiken wie traditionelle chinesische Medizin (TCM), Ayurveda in Indien oder Praktiken anderer Kulturen auf der ganzen Welt. [61] Einige nützliche Anwendungen traditioneller Arzneimittel wurden in der gewöhnlichen Medizin erforscht und akzeptiert, jedoch sind die zugrunde liegenden Glaubenssysteme selten wissenschaftlich und werden nicht akzeptiert.

Traditionelle Medizin gilt als Alternative, wenn sie außerhalb ihres Heimatgebiets angewendet wird. oder wenn es zusammen mit oder anstelle einer bekannten Funktionsbehandlung verwendet wird; or when it can be reasonably expected that the patient or practitioner knows or should know that it will not work – such as knowing that the practice is based on superstition.









Claims
Issues
Traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional practices and beliefs from China, together with modifications made by the Communist party make up TCM. Common practices include herbal medicine, acupuncture (insertion of needles in the body at specified points), massage (Tui na), exercise (qigong), and dietary therapy.
The practices are based on belief in a supernatural energy called qi, considerations of Chinese Astrology and Chinese numerology, traditional use of herbs and other substances found in China – a belief that the tongue contains a map of the body that reflects changes in the body, and an incorrect model of the anatomy and physiology of internal organs.[4][101][102][103][104][105]
Ayurveda
Traditional medicine of India. Ayurveda believes in the existence of three elemental substances, the doshas (called Vata, Pitta and Kapha), and states that a balance of the doshas results in health, while imbalance results in disease. Such disease-inducing imbalances can be adjusted and balanced using traditional herbs, minerals and heavy metals. Ayurveda stresses the use of plant-based medicines and treatments, with some animal products, and added minerals, including sulfur, arsenic, lead and copper sulfate[clarification needed].
Safety concerns have been raised about Ayurveda, with two U.S. studies finding about 20 percent of Ayurvedic Indian-manufactured patent medicines contained toxic levels of heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic. A 2015 study of users in the United States also found elevated blood lead levels in 40 percent of those tested. Other concerns include the use of herbs containing toxic compounds and the lack of quality control in Ayurvedic facilities. Incidents of heavy metal poisoning have been attributed to the use of these compounds in the United States.[15][108][109][110][111][112]

Supernatural energies[edit]


Bases of belief may include belief in existence of supernatural energies undetected by the science of physics, as in biofields, or in belief in properties of the energies of physics that are inconsistent with the laws of physics, as in energy medicine.[61]













Claims
Issues
Biofield therapy
Intended to influence energy fields that, it is purported, surround and penetrate the body.[61]Writers such as noted astrophysicist and advocate of skeptical thinking (Scientific skepticism) Carl Sagan (1934–1996) have described the lack of empirical evidence to support the existence of the putative energy fields on which these therapies are predicated.
Bioelectromagnetic therapy
Use verifiable electromagnetic fields, such as pulsed fields, alternating-current, or direct-current fields in an unconventional manner.[61]Asserts that magnets can be used to defy the laws of physics to influence health and disease.
Chiropractic
Spinal manipulation aims to treat "vertebral subluxations" which are claimed to put pressure on nerves.
Chiropractic was developed in the belief that manipulating the spine affects the flow of a supernatural vital energy and thereby affects health and disease. Vertebral subluxation is a pseudoscientific concept and has not been proven to exist.
Reiki
Practitioners place their palms on the patient near Chakras that they believe are centers of supernatural energies in the belief that these supernatural energies can transfer from the practitioner's palms to heal the patient.
Lacks credible scientific evidence.[114]

Holistic therapy[edit]







Claims
Issues
Mind-body medicine
The mind can affect "bodily functions and symptoms" and there is an interconnection between the mind, body, and spirit.

Herbal remedies and other substances used[edit]



Substance based practices use substances found in nature such as herbs, foods, non-vitamin supplements and megavitamins, animal and fungal products, and minerals, including use of these products in traditional medical practices that may also incorporate other methods.[61][115][116] Examples include healing claims for nonvitamin supplements, fish oil, Omega-3 fatty acid, glucosamine, echinacea, flaxseed oil, and ginseng.[117]Herbal medicine, or phytotherapy, includes not just the use of plant products, but may also include the use of animal and mineral products.[115] It is among the most commercially successful branches of alternative medicine, and includes the tablets, powders and elixirs that are sold as "nutritional supplements".[115] Only a very small percentage of these have been shown to have any efficacy, and there is little regulation as to standards and safety of their contents.[115] This may include use of known toxic substances, such as use of the poison lead in traditional Chinese medicine.[117]


Religion, faith healing, and prayer[edit]









Claims
Issues
Christian faith healing
There is a divine or spiritual intervention in healing.
Lack of evidence for effectiveness.[118] Unwanted outcomes, such as death and disability, "have occurred when faith healing was elected instead of medical care for serious injuries or illnesses".[119] A 2001 double-blind study of 799 discharged coronary surgery patients found that "intercessory prayer had no significant effect on medical outcomes after hospitalization in a coronary care unit."[120]
Shamanism
A practitioner can reach an altered states of consciousness in order to encounter and interact with the spirit world or channel supernatural energies in the belief that they can heal.

NCCIH classification[edit]


A US agency, National Center on Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), has created a classification system for branches of complementary and alternative medicine that divides them into five major groups. These groups have some overlap, and distinguish two types of energy medicine: veritable which involves scientifically observable energy (including magnet therapy, colorpuncture and light therapy) and putativewhich invokes physically undetectable or unverifiable energy.[121] None of these energies have any evidence to support that they effect the body in any positive or health promoting way.[34]


  1. Whole medical systems: Cut across more than one of the other groups; examples include traditional Chinese medicine, naturopathy, homeopathy, and ayurveda.

  2. Mind-body interventions: Explore the interconnection between the mind, body, and spirit, under the premise that they affect "bodily functions and symptoms". A connection between mind and body is conventional medical fact, and this classification does not include therapies with proven function such as cognitive behavioral therapy.

  3. "Biology"-based practices: Use substances found in nature such as herbs, foods, vitamins, and other natural substances. (Note that as used here, "biology" does not refer to the science of biology, but is a usage newly coined by NCCIH in the primary source used for this article. "Biology-based" as coined by NCCIH may refer to chemicals from a nonbiological source, such as use of the poison lead in traditional Chinese medicine, and to other nonbiological substances.)

  4. Manipulative and body-based practices: feature manipulation or movement of body parts, such as is done in bodywork, chiropractic, and osteopathic manipulation.

  5. Energy medicine: is a domain that deals with putative and verifiable energy fields:
    • Biofield therapies are intended to influence energy fields that are purported to surround and penetrate the body. The existence of such energy fields have been disproven.

    • Bioelectromagnetic-based therapies use verifiable electromagnetic fields, such as pulsed fields, alternating-current, or direct-current fields in an non-scientific manner.

History[edit]



The history of alternative medicine may refer to the history of a group of diverse medical practices that were collectively promoted as "alternative medicine" beginning in the 1970s, to the collection of individual histories of members of that group, or to the history of western medical practices that were labeled "irregular practices" by the western medical establishment.[4][122][123][124][125] It includes the histories of complementary medicine and of integrative medicine. Before the 1970s, western practitioners that were not part of the increasingly science-based medical establishment were referred to "irregular practitioners", and were dismissed by the medical establishment as unscientific and as practicing quackery.[122][123] Until the 1970s, irregular practice became increasingly marginalized as quackery and fraud, as western medicine increasingly incorporated scientific methods and discoveries, and had a corresponding increase in success of its treatments.[124] In the 1970s, irregular practices were grouped with traditional practices of nonwestern cultures and with other unproven or disproven practices that were not part of biomedicine, with the entire group collectively marketed and promoted under the single expression "alternative medicine".[4][122][123][124][126]

Use of alternative medicine in the west began to rise following the counterculture movement of the 1960s, as part of the rising new age movement of the 1970s.[4][127][128] This was due to misleading mass marketing of "alternative medicine" being an effective "alternative" to biomedicine, changing social attitudes about not using chemicals and challenging the establishment and authority of any kind, sensitivity to giving equal measure to beliefs and practices of other cultures (cultural relativism), and growing frustration and desperation by patients about limitations and side effects of science-based medicine.[4][123][124][125][126][128][129] At the same time, in 1975, the American Medical Association, which played the central role in fighting quackery in the United States, abolished its quackery committee and closed down its Department of Investigation.[122]:xxi[129] By the early to mid 1970s the expression "alternative medicine" came into widespread use, and the expression became mass marketed as a collection of "natural" and effective treatment "alternatives" to science-based biomedicine.[4][129][130][131] By 1983, mass marketing of "alternative medicine" was so pervasive that the British Medical Journal (BMJ) pointed to "an apparently endless stream of books, articles, and radio and television programmes urge on the public the virtues of (alternative medicine) treatments ranging from meditation to drilling a hole in the skull to let in more oxygen".[129]


Medical education[edit]


Mainly as a result of reforms following the Flexner Report of 1910[132]medical education in established medical schools in the US has generally not included alternative medicine as a teaching topic.[n 14] Typically, their teaching is based on current practice and scientific knowledge about: anatomy, physiology, histology, embryology, neuroanatomy, pathology, pharmacology, microbiology and immunology.[134] Medical schools' teaching includes such topics as doctor-patient communication, ethics, the art of medicine,[135] and engaging in complex clinical reasoning (medical decision-making).[136] Writing in 2002, Snyderman and Weil remarked that by the early twentieth century the Flexner model had helped to create the 20th-century academic health center, in which education, research, and practice were inseparable. While this had much improved medical practice by defining with increasing certainty the pathophysiological basis of disease, a single-minded focus on the pathophysiological had diverted much of mainstream American medicine from clinical conditions that were not well understood in mechanistic terms, and were not effectively treated by conventional therapies.[137]

By 2001 some form of CAM training was being offered by at least 75 out of 125 medical schools in the US.[138] Exceptionally, the School of Medicine of the University of Maryland, Baltimore includes a research institute for integrative medicine (a member entity of the Cochrane Collaboration).[90][139] Medical schools are responsible for conferring medical degrees, but a physician typically may not legally practice medicine until licensed by the local government authority. Licensed physicians in the US who have attended one of the established medical schools there have usually graduated Doctor of Medicine (MD).[140] All states require that applicants for MD licensure be graduates of an approved medical school and complete the United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE).[140]


Efficacy[edit]


There is a general scientific consensus that alternative therapies lack the requisite scientific validation, and their effectiveness is either unproved or disproved.[1][4][141][142] Many of the claims regarding the efficacy of alternative medicines are controversial, since research on them is frequently of low quality and methodologically flawed.Selective publication bias, marked differences in product quality and standardisation, and some companies making unsubstantiated claims call into question the claims of efficacy of isolated examples where there is evidence for alternative therapies.[144]

The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine points to confusions in the general population – a person may attribute symptomatic relief to an otherwise-ineffective therapy just because they are taking something (the placebo effect); the natural recovery from or the cyclical nature of an illness (the regression fallacy) gets misattributed to an alternative medicine being taken; a person not diagnosed with science-based medicine may never originally have had a true illness diagnosed as an alternative disease category.[145]

Edzard Ernst characterized the evidence for many alternative techniques as weak, nonexistent, or negative[146] and in 2011 published his estimate that about 7.4% were based on "sound evidence", although he believes that may be an overestimate.[147] Ernst has concluded that 95% of the alternative treatments he and his team studied, including acupuncture, herbal medicine, homeopathy, and reflexology, are "statistically indistinguishable from placebo treatments", but he also believes there is something that conventional doctors can usefully learn from the chiropractors and homeopath: this is the therapeutic value of the placebo effect, one of the strangest phenomena in medicine.[148][149]

In 2003, a project funded by the CDC identified 208 condition-treatment pairs, of which 58% had been studied by at least one randomized controlled trial (RCT), and 23% had been assessed with a meta-analysis.[150] According to a 2005 book by a US Institute of Medicine panel, the number of RCTs focused on CAM has risen dramatically.

As of 2005the Cochrane Library had 145 CAM-related Cochrane systematic reviews and 340 non-Cochrane systematic reviews. An analysis of the conclusions of only the 145 Cochrane reviews was done by two readers. In 83% of the cases, the readers agreed. In the 17% in which they disagreed, a third reader agreed with one of the initial readers to set a rating. These studies found that, for CAM, 38.4% concluded positive effect or possibly positive (12.4%), 4.8% concluded no effect, 0.7% concluded harmful effect, and 56.6% concluded insufficient evidence. An assessment of conventional treatments found that 41.3% concluded positive or possibly positive effect, 20% concluded no effect, 8.1% concluded net harmful effects, and 21.3% concluded insufficient evidence. However, the CAM review used the more developed 2004 Cochrane database, while the conventional review used the initial 1998 Cochrane database.

In the same way as for conventional therapies, drugs, and interventions, it can be difficult to test the efficacy of alternative medicine in clinical trials. In instances where an established, effective, treatment for a condition is already available, the Helsinki Declaration states that withholding such treatment is unethical in most circumstances. Use of standard-of-care treatment in addition to an alternative technique being tested may produce confounded or difficult-to-interpret results.[152]

Cancer researcher Andrew J. Vickers has stated:


Contrary to much popular and scientific writing, many alternative cancer treatments have been investigated in good-quality clinical trials, and they have been shown to be ineffective. The label "unproven" is inappropriate for such therapies; it is time to assert that many alternative cancer therapies have been "disproven".[153]


Mechanism of action[edit]


Placebo effect[edit]


A research methods expert and author of Snake Oil ScienceR. Barker Bausell, has stated that "it's become politically correct to investigate nonsense."[154] There are concerns that just having NIH support is being used to give unfounded "legitimacy to treatments that are not legitimate."[155]

Use of placebos to achieve a placebo effect in integrative medicine has been criticized as, "...diverting research time, money, and other resources from more fruitful lines of investigation in order to pursue a theory that has no basis in biology."[57][58]

Another critic has argued that academic proponents of integrative medicine sometimes recommend misleading patients by using known placebo treatments to achieve a placebo effect.[n 15] However, a 2010 survey of family physicians found that 56% of respondents said they had used a placebo in clinical practice as well. Eighty-five percent of respondents believed placebos can have both psychological and physical benefits.[157]

Integrative medicine has been criticized in that its practitioners, trained in science-based medicine, deliberately mislead patients by pretending placebos are not. "quackademic medicine" is a pejorative term used for integrative medicinewhich medical professionals consider an infiltration of quackery into academic science-based medicine.[58]

An analysis of trends in the criticism of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in five prestigious American medical journals during the period of reorganization within medicine (1965–1999) was reported as showing that the medical profession had responded to the growth of CAM in three phases, and that in each phase, changes in the medical marketplace had influenced the type of response in the journals.[158] Changes included relaxed medical licensing, the development of managed care, rising consumerism, and the establishment of the USA Office of Alternative Medicine (later National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, currently National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health).[n 16] In the "condemnation" phase, from the late 1960s to the early 1970s, authors had ridiculed, exaggerated the risks, and petitioned the state to contain CAM; in the "reassessment" phase (mid-1970s through early 1990s), when increased consumer utilization of CAM was prompting concern, authors had pondered whether patient dissatisfaction and shortcomings in conventional care contributed to the trend; in the "integration" phase of the 1990s physicians began learning to work around or administer CAM, and the subjugation of CAM to scientific scrutiny had become the primary means of control.[citation needed]


Use and regulation[edit]


Appeal[edit]


Alternative therapies often make bombastic claims, and frequently include anecdotes from healthy-looking individuals claiming successful treatment.

Practitioners of complementary medicine usually discuss and advise patients as to available alternative therapies. Patients often express interest in mind-body complementary therapies because they offer a non-drug approach to treating some health conditions.[160]

In addition to the social-cultural underpinnings of the popularity of alternative medicine, there are several psychological issues that are critical to its growth, notably psychological effects, such as the will to believe,[161]cognitive biases that help maintain self-esteem and promote harmonious social functioning,[161] and the post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy.[161]


Marketing[edit]


Edzard Ernst, a leading authority on scientific study of alternative treatments and diagnoses, and the first university professor of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Here in 2012, promoting his book Trick or Treatment co-written with Simon Singh.

The popularity of complementary & alternative medicine (CAM) may be related to other factors that Edzard Ernst mentioned in an interview in The Independent:


Why is it so popular, then? Ernst blames the providers, customers and the doctors whose neglect, he says, has created the opening into which alternative therapists have stepped. "People are told lies. There are 40 million websites and 39.9 million tell lies, sometimes outrageous lies. They mislead cancer patients, who are encouraged not only to pay their last penny but to be treated with something that shortens their lives. "At the same time, people are gullible. It needs gullibility for the industry to succeed. It doesn't make me popular with the public, but it's the truth.[162]


Paul Offit proposed that "alternative medicine becomes quackery" in four ways: by recommending against conventional therapies that are helpful, promoting potentially harmful therapies without adequate warning, draining patients' bank accounts, or by promoting "magical thinking."[45]


Friendly and colorful images of herbal treatments may look less threatening or dangerous when compared to conventional medicine. This is an intentional marketing strategy.

Social factors[edit]


Authors have speculated on the socio-cultural and psychological reasons for the appeal of alternative medicines among the minority using them in lieu of conventional medicine. There are several socio-cultural reasons for the interest in these treatments centered on the low level of scientific literacy among the public at large and a concomitant increase in antiscientific attitudes and new age mysticism.[161] Related to this are vigorous marketing[163] of extravagant claims by the alternative medical community combined with inadequate media scrutiny and attacks on critics.[161][164]

There is also an increase in conspiracy theories toward conventional medicine and pharmaceutical companies, mistrust of traditional authority figures, such as the physician, and a dislike of the current delivery methods of scientific biomedicine, all of which have led patients to seek out alternative medicine to treat a variety of ailments.[164] Many patients lack access to contemporary medicine, due to a lack of private or public health insurance, which leads them to seek out lower-cost alternative medicine.[165] Medical doctors are also aggressively marketing alternative medicine to profit from this market.[163]

Patients can be averse to the painful, unpleasant, and sometimes-dangerous side effects of biomedical treatments. Treatments for severe diseases such as cancer and HIV infection have well-known, significant side-effects. Even low-risk medications such as antibiotics can have potential to cause life-threatening anaphylactic reactions in a very few individuals. Many medications may cause minor but bothersome symptoms such as cough or upset stomach. In all of these cases, patients may be seeking out alternative treatments to avoid the adverse effects of conventional treatments.[161][164]


Prevalence of use[edit]


According to recent research, the increasing popularity of the CAM needs to be explained by moral convictions or lifestyle choices rather than by economic reasoning.[166]

In developing nations, access to essential medicines is severely restricted by lack of resources and poverty. Traditional remedies, often closely resembling or forming the basis for alternative remedies, may comprise primary healthcare or be integrated into the healthcare system. In Africa, traditional medicine is used for 80% of primary healthcare, and in developing nations as a whole over one-third of the population lack access to essential medicines.[167]

Some have proposed adopting a prize system to reward medical research.[168] However, public funding for research exists. In the US increasing the funding for research on alternative medicine is the purpose of the US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM). NCCAM has spent more than US$2.5 billion on such research since 1992 and this research has not demonstrated the efficacy of alternative treatments.[154][169][170][171] The NCCAM's sister organization in the NIC Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine gives grants of around $105 million every year.[172]

That alternative medicine has been on the rise "in countries where Western science and scientific method generally are accepted as the major foundations for healthcare, and 'evidence-based' practice is the dominant paradigm" was described as an "enigma" in the Medical Journal of Australia.[173]


In the US[edit]


In the United States, the 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) required that for states to receive federal money, they had to grant religious exemptions to child neglect and abuse laws regarding religion-based healing practices.[174] Thirty-one states have child-abuse religious exemptions.[175]

The use of alternative medicine in the US has increased,[1][176] with a 50 percent increase in expenditures and a 25 percent increase in the use of alternative therapies between 1990 and 1997 in America.[176] Americans spend many billions on the therapies annually.[176] Most Americans used CAM to treat and/or prevent musculoskeletal conditions or other conditions associated with chronic or recurring pain.[165] In America, women were more likely than men to use CAM, with the biggest difference in use of mind-body therapies including prayer specifically for health reasons".[165] In 2008, more than 37% of American hospitals offered alternative therapies, up from 27 percent in 2005, and 25% in 2004.[177][178] More than 70% of the hospitals offering CAM were in urban areas.[178]

A survey of Americans found that 88 percent thought that "there are some good ways of treating sickness that medical science does not recognize".[1] Use of magnets was the most common tool in energy medicine in America, and among users of it, 58 percent described it as at least "sort of scientific", when it is not at all scientific.[1] In 2002, at least 60 percent of US medical schools have at least some class time spent teaching alternative therapies.[1] "Therapeutic touch" was taught at more than 100 colleges and universities in 75 countries before the practice was debunked by a nine-year-old child for a school science project.[1][114]


Prevalence of use of specific therapies[edit]


The most common CAM therapies used in the US in 2002 were prayer (45%), herbalism (19%), breathing meditation (12%), meditation (8%), chiropractic medicine (8%), yoga (5–6%), body work (5%), diet-based therapy (4%), progressive relaxation (3%), mega-vitamin therapy (3%) and Visualization (2%)[165][179]

In Britain, the most often used alternative therapies were Alexander technique, Aromatherapy, Bach and other flower remedies, Body work therapies including massage, Counseling stress therapies, hypnotherapy, Meditation, Reflexology, Shiatsu, Ayurvedic medicine, Nutritional medicine, and Yoga.[180] Ayurvedic medicine remedies are mainly plant based with some use of animal materials. Safety concerns include the use of herbs containing toxic compounds and the lack of quality control in Ayurvedic facilities.[108][110]

According to the National Health Service (England), the most commonly used complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) supported by the NHS in the UK are: acupuncture, aromatherapy, chiropractic, homeopathy, massage, osteopathy and clinical hypnotherapy.[182]


In palliative care[edit]


Complementary therapies are often used in palliative care or by practitioners attempting to manage chronic pain in patients. Integrative medicine is considered more acceptable in the interdisciplinary approach used in palliative care than in other areas of medicine. "From its early experiences of care for the dying, palliative care took for granted the necessity of placing patient values and lifestyle habits at the core of any design and delivery of quality care at the end of life. If the patient desired complementary therapies, and as long as such treatments provided additional support and did not endanger the patient, they were considered acceptable."[183] The non-pharmacologic interventions of complementary medicine can employ mind-body interventions designed to "reduce pain and concomitant mood disturbance and increase quality of life."[184]


Regulation[edit]



In Austria and Germany complementary and alternative medicine is mainly in the hands of doctors with MDs,[30] and half or more of the American alternative practitioners are licensed MDs.[185] In Germany herbs are tightly regulated: half are prescribed by doctors and covered by health insurance.[186]

Some professions of complementary/traditional/alternative medicine, such as chiropractic, have achieved full regulation in North America and other parts of the world and are regulated in a manner similar to that governing science-based medicine. In contrast, other approaches may be partially recognized and others have no regulation at all. Regulation and licensing of alternative medicine ranges widely from country to country, and state to state.

Government bodies in the US and elsewhere have published information or guidance about alternative medicine. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), has issued online warnings for consumers about medication health fraud.[188] This includes a section on Alternative Medicine Fraud,[189] such as a warning that Ayurvedic products generally have not been approved by the FDA before marketing.[190]


Risks and problems[edit]


Negative outcomes[edit]



Adequacy of regulation and CAM safety[edit]


Many of the claims regarding the safety and efficacy of alternative medicine are controversial. Some alternative treatments have been associated with unexpected side effects, which can be fatal.[191]

A commonly voiced concerns about complementary alternative medicine (CAM) is the way it's regulated. There have been significant developments in how CAMs should be assessed prior to re-sale in the United Kingdom and the European Union (EU) in the last 2 years. Despite this, it has been suggested that current regulatory bodies have been ineffective in preventing deception of patients as many companies have re-labelled their drugs to avoid the new laws.[192] There is no general consensus about how to balance consumer protection (from false claims, toxicity, and advertising) with freedom to choose remedies.

Advocates of CAM suggest that regulation of the industry will adversely affect patients looking for alternative ways to manage their symptoms, even if many of the benefits may represent the placebo affect.[193] Some contend that alternative medicines should not require any more regulation than over-the-counter medicines that can also be toxic in overdose (such as paracetamol).[194]


Interactions with conventional pharmaceuticals[edit]


Forms of alternative medicine that are biologically active can be dangerous even when used in conjunction with conventional medicine. Examples include immuno-augmentation therapy, shark cartilage, bioresonance therapy, oxygen and ozone therapies, and insulin potentiation therapy. Some herbal remedies can cause dangerous interactions with chemotherapy drugs, radiation therapy, or anesthetics during surgery, among other problems.[31] An example of these dangers was reported by Associate Professor Alastair MacLennan of Adelaide University, Australia regarding a patient who almost bled to death on the operating table after neglecting to mention that she had been taking "natural" potions to "build up her strength" before the operation, including a powerful anticoagulant that nearly caused her death.[195]

To ABC OnlineMacLennan also gives another possible mechanism:


And lastly there's the cynicism and disappointment and depression that some patients get from going on from one alternative medicine to the next, and they find after three months the placebo effect wears off, and they're disappointed and they move on to the next one, and they're disappointed and disillusioned, and that can create depression and make the eventual treatment of the patient with anything effective difficult, because you may not get compliance, because they've seen the failure so often in the past.[196]


Side-effects[edit]


Conventional treatments are subjected to testing for undesired side-effects, whereas alternative treatments, in general, are not subjected to such testing at all. Any treatment – whether conventional or alternative – that has a biological or psychological effect on a patient may also have potential to possess dangerous biological or psychological side-effects. Attempts to refute this fact with regard to alternative treatments sometimes use the appeal to nature fallacy, i.e., "That which is natural cannot be harmful." Specific groups of patients such as patients with impaired hepatic or renal function are more susceptible to side effects of alternative remedies.[197][198]

An exception to the normal thinking regarding side-effects is Homeopathy. Since 1938, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has regulated homeopathic products in "several significantly different ways from other drugs."[199] Homeopathic preparations, termed "remedies", are extremely dilute, often far beyond the point where a single molecule of the original active (and possibly toxic) ingredient is likely to remain. They are, thus, considered safe on that count, but "their products are exempt from good manufacturing practice requirements related to expiration dating and from finished product testing for identity and strength", and their alcohol concentration may be much higher than allowed in conventional drugs.[199]


Treatment delay[edit]

Those having experienced or perceived success with one alternative therapy for a minor ailment may be convinced of its efficacy and persuaded to extrapolate that success to some other alternative therapy for a more serious, possibly life-threatening illness.[200] For this reason, critics argue that therapies that rely on the placebo effect to define success are very dangerous. According to mental health journalist Scott Lilienfeld in 2002, "unvalidated or scientifically unsupported mental health practices can lead individuals to forgo effective treatments" and refers to this as "opportunity cost". Individuals who spend large amounts of time and money on ineffective treatments may be left with precious little of either, and may forfeit the opportunity to obtain treatments that could be more helpful. In short, even innocuous treatments can indirectly produce negative outcomes.[201] Between 2001 and 2003, four children died in Australia because their parents chose ineffective naturopathic, homeopathic, or other alternative medicines and diets rather than conventional therapies.[202]


Unconventional cancer "cures"[edit]


There have always been "many therapies offered outside of conventional cancer treatment centers and based on theories not found in biomedicine. These alternative cancer cures have often been described as 'unproven,' suggesting that appropriate clinical trials have not been conducted and that the therapeutic value of the treatment is unknown." However, "many alternative cancer treatments have been investigated in good-quality clinical trials, and they have been shown to be ineffective....The label 'unproven' is inappropriate for such therapies; it is time to assert that many alternative cancer therapies have been 'disproven'."[153]

Edzard Ernst has stated:


any alternative cancer cure is bogus by definition. There will never be an alternative cancer cure. Warum? Because if something looked halfway promising, then mainstream oncology would scrutinize it, and if there is anything to it, it would become mainstream almost automatically and very quickly. All curative "alternative cancer cures" are based on false claims, are bogus, and, I would say, even criminal.[203]


Rejection of science[edit]




"CAM", meaning "complementary and alternative medicine", is not as well researched as conventional medicine, which undergoes intense research before release to the public.[204] Funding for research is also sparse making it difficult to do further research for effectiveness of CAM.[205] Most funding for CAM is funded by government agencies.[204] Proposed research for CAM are rejected by most private funding agencies because the results of research are not reliable.[204] The research for CAM has to meet certain standards from research ethics committees, which most CAM researchers find almost impossible to meet.[204] Even with the little research done on it, CAM has not been proven to be effective.[206]

Steven Novella, a neurologist at Yale School of Medicine, wrote that government funded studies of integrating alternative medicine techniques into the mainstream are "used to lend an appearance of legitimacy to treatments that are not legitimate."[155]Marcia Angell considered that critics felt that healthcare practices should be classified based solely on scientific evidence, and if a treatment had been rigorously tested and found safe and effective, science-based medicine will adopt it regardless of whether it was considered "alternative" to begin with.[3] It is possible for a method to change categories (proven vs. unproven), based on increased knowledge of its effectiveness or lack thereof. A prominent supporter of this position is George D. Lundberg, former editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA).[47]

Writing in 1999 in CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians Barrie R. Cassileth mentioned a 1997 letter to the US Senate Subcommittee on Public Health and Safety, which had deplored the lack of critical thinking and scientific rigor in OAM-supported research, had been signed by four Nobel Laureates and other prominent scientists. (This was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH).)[207]

In March 2009 a staff writer for the Washington Post reported that the impending national discussion about broadening access to health care, improving medical practice and saving money was giving a group of scientists an opening to propose shutting down the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. They quoted one of these scientists, Steven Salzberg, a genome researcher and computational biologist at the University of Maryland, as saying "One of our concerns is that NIH is funding pseudoscience." They noted that the vast majority of studies were based on fundamental misunderstandings of physiology and disease, and had shown little or no effect.[155]

Writers such as Carl Sagan, a noted astrophysicist, advocate of scientific skepticism and the author of The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark (1996), have lambasted the lack of empirical evidence to support the existence of the putative energy fields on which these therapies are predicated.

Sampson has also pointed out that CAM tolerated contradiction without thorough reason and experiment.[208] Barrett has pointed out that there is a policy at the NIH of never saying something doesn't work only that a different version or dose might give different results.[154] Barrett also expressed concern that, just because some "alternatives" have merit, there is the impression that the rest deserve equal consideration and respect even though most are worthless, since they are all classified under the one heading of alternative medicine.[209]

Some critics of alternative medicine are focused upon health fraud, misinformation, and quackery as public health problems, notably Wallace Sampson and Paul Kurtz founders of Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine and Stephen Barrett, co-founder of The National Council Against Health Fraud and webmaster of Quackwatch.[210] Grounds for opposing alternative medicine include that:


  • It is usually based on religion, tradition, superstition, belief in supernatural energies, pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, or fraud.[164][1][4][211]

  • Alternative therapies typically lack any scientific validation, and their effectiveness is either unproved or disproved.[4][141][142][dubious ]

  • Treatments are not part of the conventional, science-based healthcare system.[12][61][213]

  • Research on alternative medicine is frequently of low quality and methodologically flawed.[61]

  • Where alternative treatments have replaced conventional science-based medicine, even with the safest alternative medicines, failure to use or delay in using conventional science-based medicine ha s caused deaths.[201][202]

  • Methods may incorporate or base themselves on traditional medicine, folk knowledge, spiritual beliefs, ignorance or misunderstanding of scientific principles, errors in reasoning, or newly conceived approaches claiming to heal.[164][4][215]

Many alternative medical treatments are not patentable,[citation needed] which may lead to less research funding from the private sector. In addition, in most countries, alternative treatments (in contrast to pharmaceuticals) can be marketed without any proof of efficacy – also a disincentive for manufacturers to fund scientific research.[216]

English evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, in his 2003 book A Devil's Chaplaindefined alternative medicine as a "set of practices that cannot be tested, refuse to be tested, or consistently fail tests."[217] Dawkins argued that if a technique is demonstrated effective in properly performed trials then it ceases to be alternative and simply becomes medicine.[218]

CAM is also often less regulated than conventional medicine.[204] There are ethical concerns about whether people who perform CAM have the proper knowledge to treat patients.[204] CAM is often done by non-physicians who do not operate with the same medical licensing laws which govern conventional medicine,[204] and it is often described as an issue of non-maleficence.[219]

According to two writers, Wallace Sampson and K. Butler, marketing is part of the training required in alternative medicine, and propaganda methods in alternative medicine have been traced back to those used by Hitler and Goebels in their promotion of pseudoscience in medicine.[4][220]

In November 2011 Edzard Ernst stated that the "level of misinformation about alternative medicine has now reached the point where it has become dangerous and unethical. So far, alternative medicine has remained an ethics-free zone. It is time to change this."[221]


Conflicts of interest[edit]


Some commentators have said that special considerat ion must be given to the issue of conflicts of interest in alternative medicine. Edzard Ernst has said that most researchers into alternative medicine are at risk of "unidirectional bias" because of a generally uncritical belief in their chosen subject.[222] Ernst cites as evidence the phenomenon whereby 100% of a sample of acupuncture trials originating in China had positive conclusions.[222]David Gorski contrasts evidence-based medicine, in which researchers try to disprove hyphotheses, with what he says is the frequent practice in pseudoscience-based research, of striving to confirm pre-existing notions.[223]Harriet Hall writes that there is a contrast between the circumstances of alternative medicine practitioners and disinterested scientists: in the case of acupuncture, for example, an acupuncturist would have "a great deal to lose" if acupuncture were rejected by research; but the disinterested skeptic would not lose anything if its effects were confirmed; rather their change of mind would enhance their skeptical credentials.[224]


Gallery[edit]


See also[edit]





  1. ^ a b "[A]lternative medicine refers to all treatments that have not been proven effective using scientific methods."[1]

  2. ^ a b c d "Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a broad domain of resources that encompasses health systems, modalities, and practices and their accompanying theories and beliefs, other than those intrinsic to the dominant health system of a particular society or culture in a given historical period. CAM includes such resources perceived by their users as associated with positive health outcomes. Boundaries within CAM and betw een the CAM domain and the domain of the dominant system are not always sharp or fixed."

  3. ^ a b "It is time for the scientific community to stop giving alternative medicine a free ride. There cannot be two kinds of medicine – conventional and alternative. There is only medicine that has been adequately tested and medicine that has not, medicine that works and medicine that may or may not work... speculation, and testimonials do not substitute for evidence."[3]

  4. ^ a b c "The phrase complementary and alternative medicine is used to describe a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that have historic origins outside mainstream medicine. Most of these practices are used together with conventional therapies and therefore have been called complementary to distinguish them from alternative practices, those used as a substitute for standard care. ... Until a decade ago or so, "complementary and alternative medicine" could be defined as practices that are neither taught in medical schools nor reimbursed, but this definition is no longer workable, since medical students increasingly seek and receive some instruction about complementary health practices, and some practices are reimbursed by third-party payers. Another definition, practices that lack an evidence base, is also not useful, since there is a growing body of research on some of these modalities, and some aspects of standard care do not have a strong evidence base."

  5. ^ "An alternative medical system is a set of practices based on a philosophy different from Western biomedicine."[9]

  6. ^ "CAM is a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not generally considered part of conventional medicine."[10]

  7. ^ The Final Report (2002) of the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy states: "The Commissioners believe and have repeatedly stated in this Report that our response should be to hold all systems of health and healing, including conventional and CAM, to the same rigorous standards of good science and health services research. Although the Commissioners support the provision of the most accurate information about the state of the science of all CAM modalities, they believe that it is premature to advocate the wide implementation and reimbursement of CAM modalities that are yet unproven."[21]

  8. ^ Mary Ruggie in Chapter 2 of Marginal to Mainstream: Alternative Medicine in America said, "By the mid-1990s, the notion that some alternative therapies could be complementary to conventional medicine began to change the status of...alternative medicine. The 21st century is witnessing yet another terminological innovation, in which CAM and conventional medicine are becoming integrative."

  9. ^ As David J. Hufford, Professor and Director at the Doctors Kienle Center for Humanistic Medicine at the Penn State College of Medicine,[62] has argued: "Simply because an herbal remedy comes to be used by physicians does not mean that herbalists cease to practice, or that the practice of the one becomes like that of the other."[63]

  10. ^ The BMA used the term non-conventional medicine instead of alternative medicine.[65]

  11. ^ The Office for Alternative Medicine, part of the National Institutes of Health, was renamed NCCAM in 1998.[73]

  12. ^ "Evidence based medicine is the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients";[85] "Evidence based medicine, whose philosophical origins extend back to mid-19th century Paris and earlier, remains a hot topic for clinicians, public health practitioners, purchasers, planners, and the public. British centres for evidence based practice have been established or planned in adult medicine, child health, surgery, pathology, pharmacotherapy, nursing, general practice, and dentistry; the Cochrane Collaboration and Britain's Centre for Review and Dissemination in York are providing systematic reviews of the effects of health care".[85]

  13. ^ In his book The Homœopathic Medical Doctrine Samuel Hahnemann the creator of homeopathy wrote: "Observation, reflection, and experience have unfolded to me that the best and true method of cure is founded on the principle, similia similibus curentur. To cure in a mild, prompt, safe, and durable manner, it is necessary to choose in each case a medicine that will excite an affection similar (ὅμοιος πάθος) to that against which it is employed."

  14. ^ As the medical professor Kenneth M. Ludmerer noted in 2010: "Flexner pointed out that the scientific method of thinking applied to medical practice. By scientific method, he meant testing ideas with well-planned experiments to establish accurate facts. The clinician's diagnosis was equivalent to the scientist's hypothesis: both medical diagnosis and hypothesis required the test of an experiment. Flexner argued that mastery of the scientific method of problem solving was the key for physicians to manage medical uncertainty and to practice in the most cost-effective way."[133]

  15. ^ As a 2010 article in the New England Journal of Medicine concluded:

    real acupuncture treatments were no more effective than sham acupuncture treatments. There was, nevertheless, evidence that both real acupuncture and sham acupuncture were more effective than no treatment, and that acupuncture can be a useful supplement to other forms of conventional therapy for low back pain.[156]



  16. ^ According to the medical historian James Harvey Young:

    In 1991 the Senate Appropriations Committee responsible for funding the National Institutes of Health (NIH) declared itself "not satisfied that the conventional medical community as symbolized at the NIH has fully explored the potential that exists in unconventional m edical practices.[159]




References[edit]



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Bibliography[edit]


  • Bivins, R. (2007). Alternative Medicine? A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199218875.

  • Board of Science and Education, British Medical Association (1993). Complementary Medicine: New Approaches to Good Practice. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192861665.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)

  • Callahan, D., ed. (2004). The Role of Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Accommodating Pluralism. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 9781589014640.

  • Cohen, Michael H. (1998). Complementary & Alternative Medicine: Legal Boundaries and Regulatory Perspectives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801856891.

  • Committee on the Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by the American Public, Board on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Institute of Medicine, US National Academies (2005). Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. ISBN 978-0309092708.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)

  • Gevitz, N. (1997) [1993]. "Chapter 28: Unorthodox Medical Theories". In Bynum, W.F.; Porter, R.S. Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine. Vol. 1. New York & London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415164191.

  • Hahnemann, S. (1833). The Homœopathic Medical Doctrine, or "Organon of the Healing Art". Translation by Devrient, C.H. Annotated by Stratten, S. Dublin: W.F. Wakeman.

  • Kasper, Dennis L; Fauci, Anthony S.; Hauser, Stephen L.; Longo, Dan L.; Jameson, J. Larry; Loscalzo, Joseph (2015). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (19th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Bildung. ISBN 9780071802154.

  • Mishra, Lakshmi Chandra (2004). Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0849313660.

  • O'Connor, Bonnie Blair (1995). Healing Traditions: Alternative Medicine and the Health Professions. Philadelphia: Universität von Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812213980.

  • Ruggie, M. (2004). Marginal to Mainstream: Alternative Medicine in America. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521834292.

  • Sagan, C. (1996). The Demon-Haunted World: Science As a Candle in the Dark. New York: Zufälliges Haus. ISBN 9780394535128.

  • Saks, M. (2003). Orthodox and Alternative Medicine: Politics, Professionalization and Health Care. Sage-Publikationen. ISBN 9781446265369.

  • Sointu, E. (2012). Theorizing Complementary and Alternative Medicines: Wellbeing, Self, Gender, Class. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230309319.

  • Walton J., Sir, Science and Technology Committee, House of Lords, Parliament of the United Kingdom (2000) [Session 1999–2000, HL 123]. Sixth Report: Complementary and Alternative Medicine. London: Das Schreibwarenbüro. ISBN 9780104831007.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)

  • Taylor, Kim (2005). Chinese Medicine in Early Communist China, 1945–63: a Medicine of Revolution. Needham Research Institute Studies. London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0415345125.

  • Wujastyk, D., ed. (2003). The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings. Translated by D. Wujastyk. London and New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0140448245.

Further reading[edit]


  • Bausell, R.B (2007). Snake oil science : the truth about complementary and alternative medicine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195313680.

  • Benedetti, F.; et al. (2003). "Open versus hidden medical treatments: The patient's knowledge about a therapy affects the therapy outcome". Prevention & Treatment. 6 (1). doi:10.1037/1522-3736.6.1.61a.

  • Dawkins, R. (2001). "Foreword". In Diamond, J. Snake Oil and Other Preoccupations. London: Vintage. ISBN 9780099428336. Reprinted in Dawkins 2003.

  • Downing AM, Hunter DG (2003). "Validating clinical reasoning: A question of perspective, but whose perspective?". Manual Therapy. 8 (2): 117–19. doi:10.1016/S1356-689X(02)00077-2. PMID 12890440.

  • Eisenberg DM (July 1997). "Advising patients who seek alternative medical therapies". Annals of Internal Medicine. 127 (1): 61–69. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-127-1-199707010-00010. PMID 9214254.

  • Gunn IP (December 1998). "A critique of Michael L. Millenson's book, Demanding Medical Excellence: Doctors and Accountability in the Information Age, and its Relevance to CRNAs and Nursing". AANA Journal. 66 (6): 575–82. ISSN 0094-6354. PMID 10488264.

  • Hand, W.D. (1980). "Folk Magical Medicine and Symbolism in the West". Magical Medicine. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 305–19. ISBN 9780520041295. OCLC 6420468.

  • Illich, I. (1976). Limits to Medicine: Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health. Pinguin. ISBN 9780140220094. OCLC 4134656.

  • Mayo Clinic (2007). Mayo Clinic Book of Alternative Medicine: The New Approach to Using the Best of Natural Therapies and Conventional Medicine. Parsippany, New Jersey: Time Home Entertainment. ISBN 9781933405926.

  • Stevens, P., Jr. (November–December 2001). "Magical thinking in complementary and alternative medicine". Skeptical Inquirer.

  • Planer, F.E. (1988). Superstition (Rev. ed.). Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 9780879754945. OCLC 18616238.

  • Rosenfeld, A. (c. 2000). "Where Do Americans Go for Healthcare?". Cleveland, Ohio: Case Western Reserve University. Retrieved 2010-09-23.

  • Snyder, Mariah; Lindquist, Ruth (May 2001). "Issues in Complementary Therapies: How We Got to Where We Are". Online Journal of Issues in Nursing. 6 (2).

  • Tonelli MR (2001). "The limits of evidence-based medicine". Respiratory Care. 46 (12): 1435–40, discussion 1440–1. PMID 11728302.

  • Trivieri, L. Jr. (2002). Anderson, J.W., ed. Alternative Medicine: The Definitive Guide. Berkeley: Ten Speed ​​Press. ISBN 9781587611414.

  • Wisneski, L.A.; et al. (2005). The scientific basis of integrative medicine. CRC Press. ISBN 9780849320811.

  • Zalewski, Z. (1999). "Importance of philosophy of science to the history of medical thinking". CMJ. 40 (1): 8–13. Archived from the original on 2004-02-06.

World Health Organization[edit]


Journals[edit]


External links[edit]















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