Thứ Năm, 14 tháng 2, 2019

Textual description of firstImageUrl

Meditation - Wikipedia



Swami Vivekananda
Hsuan Hua

Meditation ist eine Praxis, bei der eine Person eine Technik anwendet - etwa Achtsamkeit oder die Konzentration ihres Geistes auf ein bestimmtes Objekt, einen bestimmten Gedanken oder eine bestimmte Aktivität -, um Aufmerksamkeit und Bewusstsein zu trainieren. und einen geistig klaren und emotional ruhigen und stabilen Zustand erreichen. [1]: 228-29 [2]: 180 [3]: 415 [4]: 107 [5][6]

Meditation wird seit dem Altertum in zahlreichen religiösen Traditionen und Glaubenssätzen praktiziert, oft als Teil des Weges zur Aufklärung und Selbstverwirklichung. Seit dem 19. Jahrhundert hat es sich von seinen Ursprüngen in anderen Kulturen verbreitet, wo es häufig im Privat- und Geschäftsleben praktiziert wird.

Meditation kann mit dem Ziel verwendet werden, Stress, Angstzustände, Depressionen und Schmerzen zu reduzieren und den Frieden, die Wahrnehmung, das Selbstverständnis und das Wohlbefinden von 19659010 zu erhöhen. [8][9][10][11] Die Meditation wird erforscht, um ihre Möglichkeiten zu definieren Gesundheit (psychologische, neurologische und kardiovaskuläre) und andere Auswirkungen.




Etymology [ edit ]


Die englische -Meditation stammt von Old French meditacioun und dem lateinischen meditatio aus einem Verb meditari was "Denken, Nachdenken, Entwickeln, Nachdenken" bedeutet. [12][13] Die Verwendung des Begriffs meditatio als Teil eines formalen, schrittweisen Meditationsprozesses geht zurück dem Mönch Guigo II aus dem 12. Jahrhundert [13] [14]

Abgesehen von seiner historischen Verwendung wurde der Begriff Meditation als Übersetzung für eingeführt Östliche spirituelle Praktiken, die im Hinduismus und Buddhismus als dhyāna bezeichnet werden und aus der Sanskritwurzel dhyai stammen, was bedeutet, dass man darüber nachdenkt oder meditiert. [15][16] Der Begriff "Meditation" im Englischen kann bedeuten verweisen auch auf Praktiken des islamischen Sufismus [17] oder anderer Traditionen wie der jüdischen Kabbala und des christlichen Hesych [4]


Definitionen [ edit ]


In der populären Verwendung werden das Wort "Meditation" und der Ausdruck "meditative Praxis" häufig ungenau verwendet, um allgemein ähnliche Praktiken oder Sätze von zu bezeichnen Praktiken, die in vielen Kulturen und Traditionen vorkommen. [4][18] Was als Meditation angesehen wird, kann fast jede Übung umfassen, die die Aufmerksamkeit schult oder Ruhe oder Mitgefühl lehrt. [19]


Definitionen des Wörterbuchs [ edit ]


Definitionen in den lebenden Wörterbüchern von Oxford und Cambridge und in Merriam-Webster umfassen sowohl die ursprüngliche lateinische Bedeutung von "Denken [ing] tief über (etwas)"; [6] als auch die populäre Verwendung von ", um den Verstand zu fokussieren eine Zeitspanne, "[6] " der Akt, Ihre Aufmerksamkeit nur auf eine Sache zu richten, [20] und "sich geistig zu bewegen (zum Beispiel Konzentration auf das eigene Atmen oder Wiederholung eines Mantras), um zu erreichen eine erhöhte Ebene des geistigen Bewusstseins. "[19659029] Wissenschaftliche Definitionen [ edit ]

Kriterien für die Definition einer Praxis als Meditation "zur Verwendung in einer umfassenden systematischen Überprüfung der therapeutischen Verwendung von Meditation" wurden von Bond et al. (2009) unter Verwendung einer "5-Runden-Delphi-Studie mit einem Panel von 7 Experten in der Meditationsforschung", die auch in verschiedenen, aber empirisch stark untersuchten (klinischen oder aus dem Osten stammenden) Meditationsformen ausgebildet wurden [21];


Drei Hauptkriterien [...] als wesentlich für jede Meditationspraxis: die Verwendung einer definierten Technik, logische Relaxation [note 1] und eines selbstinduzierten Zustands / Modus.

Andere als wichtig eingestufte Kriterien [but not essential] beinhalten einen Zustand der psychophysischen Entspannung, die Verwendung einer Selbstfokus-Fähigkeit oder eines Ankers, das Vorhandensein eines Suspendierungszustands logischer Denkprozesse, einen religiösen / spirituellen / philosophischen Kontext oder ein Zustand der geistigen Stille. [22]: 135

[...] Es ist plausibel, dass Meditation am besten als eine natürliche Kategorie von Techniken betrachtet wird, die am besten von "Familienähnlichkeiten" [...] oder von der verwandtes 'Prototyp'-Modell der Konzepte. "[22]: 135 [23]



Die Tabelle zeigt einige andere Definitionen von Meditation, die in einflussreichen modernen Reviews der Meditationsforschung über mehrere Traditionen hinweg verwendet wurden.







Definitionen oder Charakterisierungen von Meditation:
Beispiele aus prominenten Reviews *
Definition / Charakterisierung
Review
• "[M] bezieht sich auf eine Familie von Selbstregulierungspraktiken, die sich auf das Trainieren von Aufmerksamkeit und Bewusstsein konzentrieren, um psychische Prozesse stärker freiwilliger Kontrolle zu unterziehen und dadurch die allgemeine geistige Entwicklung zu fördern Wohlbefinden und Entwicklung und / oder spezifische Fähigkeiten wie Ruhe, Klarheit und Konzentration "[1]: 228-29 Walsh & Shapiro (2006)
• "[M] Ausgabe beschreibt Praktiken, die Körper und Geist selbst regulieren, wodurch psychische Ereignisse beeinflusst werden, indem ein bestimmter Aufmerksamkeitssatz verwendet wird. Die Regulierung der Aufmerksamkeit ist die zentrale Gemeinsamkeit zwischen den vielen divergente Methoden "[2]: 180 Cahn & Polich (2006)
• "Wir definieren Meditation ... als stilisierte mentale Technik ..., die wiederholt praktiziert wird, um ein subjektives Erlebnis zu erreichen, das häufig als sehr erholsam, stumm und von erhöhter Wachsamkeit beschrieben wird, das oft als Glückseligkeit bezeichnet wird." [19659051]: 415 Jevning et al. (1992)
• "Die Notwendigkeit, dass der Meditierende seine Aufmerksamkeit zurückziehen muss, sei es durch Konzentration oder Achtsamkeit, ist der einzige unveränderliche Bestandteil in ... jedem Meditationssystem" [4]: 107 Goleman (1988)
* Einflussreiche Rezensionen umfassen multiple Meditationsmethoden

(Die ersten 3 werden in PsycINFO> 80-mal zitiert. [24]

) Golemans Buch hat 33 Ausgaben in WorldCat: 17 Ausgaben als Der meditative Geist: Die meditative Vielfalt Erfahrung und 16 Ausgaben als Die Varianten der meditativen Erfahrung. Zitier- und Ausgabezählungen gelten ab August 2018 bzw. September 2018.)



In der modernen psychologischen Forschung wurde Meditation auf verschiedene Weise definiert und charakterisiert; Viele von ihnen betonen die Rolle der Aufmerksamkeit. [4][1][2][3] Wissenschaftliche Überprüfungen haben vorgeschlagen, dass Forscher versuchen, die Art der Meditation klarer zu definieren, um die Ergebnisse ihrer Studien klarer zu machen. [25]: 499 [19659061] Eine Überprüfung des Feldes stellt eine detaillierte Reihe von Fragen als Ausgangspunkt für das Erreichen dieses Ziels dar. [19]

Der Meditationspraktiker versucht, über den reflexiven, "denkenden" Geist hinauszukommen. 19659063] (manchmal als "diskursives Denken" [27] oder "Logik" [28] bezeichnet) Dies kann dazu dienen, einen tieferen, frommen oder entspannteren Zustand zu erreichen. In diesem Artikel werden die Begriffe "meditative Praxis" und "Meditation" meistens in diesem weiten Sinn verwendet. In einigen Zusammenhängen können jedoch speziellere Bedeutungen von "Meditation" gemeint sein.


Trennung der Technik von der Tradition [ edit ]


Einige Schwierigkeiten bei der genauen Definition der Meditation waren die Schwierigkeiten, die Besonderheiten der vielen verschiedenen Traditionen zu erkennen. [25] Unterschiede zwischen den Theorien einer Tradition der Meditation darüber, was es bedeutet, Meditation zu üben. [29] Die Unterschiede zwischen den verschiedenen Traditionen selbst, die in einem großen Abstand voneinander gewachsen sind, können noch stärker sein. [29] Taylor stellte fest, dass sich nur auf die Meditation eines bestimmten Glaubens beziehen soll (zB "Hindu" oder "Buddhist").


... reicht nicht aus, da die kulturellen Traditionen, aus denen eine bestimmte Art der Meditation stammt, sehr unterschiedlich sind und sich sogar innerhalb einer einzigen Tradition in komplexer Weise unterscheiden. Der spezifische Name einer Denkschule oder eines Lehrers oder der Titel eines bestimmten Textes ist oftmals sehr wichtig, um eine bestimmte Art der Meditation zu identifizieren. [30]: 2


Ornstein stellte fest, dass "Die meisten Techniken der Meditation gibt es nicht als Einzelpraxis, sondern ist nur künstlich von einem ganzen System der Praxis und des Glaubens abtrennbar. "[31]: 143 Dies bedeutet, dass beispielsweise Mönche als Teil von Meditation meditieren In ihrem Alltag setzen sie sich auch an die kodifizierten Regeln und leben in Klöstern in spezifischen kulturellen Umgebungen zusammen, die mit ihren meditativen Praktiken einhergehen. Diese meditativen Praktiken haben manchmal Ähnlichkeiten (oft von westlichen Menschen bemerkt), zum Beispiel wird die Konzentration auf den Atem in den Kontexten Zen, Tibet und Theravadan praktiziert, und diese Ähnlichkeiten oder "Typologien" werden hier erwähnt.


Formen der Meditation [ edit ]


Konzentrierte vs. offene Überwachungsmeditation [ edit ]


Im Westen waren Meditationstechniken manchmal in zwei großen Kategorien gedacht: fokussierte (oder konzentrative) Meditation und offene Monitoring- (oder Achtsamkeits-) Meditation. [32]



Ein Stil, die Focused Attention (FA) -Meditation, erfordert die freiwillige Fokussierung der Aufmerksamkeit auf ein ausgewähltes Objekt, Atmung, Bild, oder Wörter. Der andere Stil, Open Monitoring (OM) -Meditation, beinhaltet die nicht-reaktive Überwachung des Erfahrungsinhalts von Moment zu Moment. [32]


Richtung der mentalen Aufmerksamkeit ... Ein Praktiker kann sich intensiv auf ein bestimmtes Objekt konzentrieren (so genannte konzentrative Meditation ), zu allen psychischen Ereignissen, die in das Bewusstseinsfeld eintreten (sog. Achtsamkeitsmeditation ), oder zu beiden spezifischen Schwerpunkten und dem Bewusstseinsfeld. [22]: 130 [33]


Fokussierte Aufmerksamkeitsmethoden [ edit ]


Dazu gehört, dem Atem Aufmerksamkeit zu schenken, einer Idee oder einem Gefühl (z. B. Mettā (liebende Güte)), einem Kōan oder zu einem Mantra (wie in transzendentaler Meditation) und Einzelpunktmeditation. [34][35]


Offene Überwachungsmethoden [ edit


Dazu gehören Achtsamkeit, Shikantaza und andere Bewusstseinszustände. 19659091] Praktiken, die beide Methoden anwenden [ edit ]

So Ich praktizieren beide Techniken, [37][38][39] einschließlich Vipassana (das Anapanasati als Vorbereitung verwendet), Samatha / ruhig bleibend [40][41] und Headspace. [42]


Kein Gedanke [ edit ]. 19659025] Bei diesen Methoden " ist der Praktizierende völlig wach, bewusst und beherrscht ihre Fähigkeiten, erfährt jedoch keine ungewollten Gedankenaktivitäten. " [43] Dies steht im Gegensatz zu den üblichen meditativen Ansätzen von von den Gedanken losgelöst zu sein und nicht zu urteilen, aber nicht darauf zu zielen, dass die Gedanken aufhören. [44] In der Meditationspraxis der spirituellen Bewegung des Sahaja Yoga liegt der Fokus auf dem Aufhören der Gedanken. [45] Klares Licht Yoga zielt ebenfalls ab in einem Zustand ohne geistigen Gehalt, wie auch der von Huineng [46] gelehrte Nichtgedanken (wu nian) und die Lehre von Yaoshan Weiyan.


Automatisches Selbsttranszendieren [ edit ]


Ein Vorschlag ist, die transzendentale Meditation und möglicherweise andere Techniken als "automatischen selbsttranszendierenden" Satz von Techniken zu gruppieren. [47]


Anderes Typologien [ edit ]


Andere Typologien umfassen die Unterteilung von Meditation in konzentrative, generative, aufnahmefähige und reflektierende Praktiken. [48]


Von einigen bekannten Meditierenden verwendete Meditationsmethoden [ ]


  • Mehrere Methoden; Pema Chödrön (Shambhala - verwendet mehrere Methoden), Susan Piver (Shambhala), SNGoenka (Vipassana - verwendet mehrere Methoden), Joseph Goldstein (Vipassana), Judson Brewer [49] (Vipassana), Yuval Harari (Vipassana), 14. Dalai Lama (verschiedene, [50] einschließlich analytischer Meditation [51]), Matthieu Ricard (liebende Güte, offenes Bewusstsein, analytisch [52]), Sharon Salzberg (liebende Güte, [53] Achtsamkeit, [54] vipassana), Daniel Goleman (Dzogchen, andere [55]), Thubten Chodron (stabilisierend, analytisch, [56] liebende Güte [57]), Martine und Stephen Batchelor (Achtsamkeitsatmung, Körper, Töne, Gefühlstöne (Vedanas), Seon fragend, anerkennende Freude (Mudita)).

  • Offenes Bewusstsein; Jon Kabat-Zinn (Achtsamkeit), Sam Harris (Achtsamkeit).

  • Chakra-Meditation; [58] Michal Levin [59]

Meditationspraxis


Übliche Zeitvorgaben [58] edit ]


Die transzendentale Meditationstechnik empfiehlt zweimal täglich 20 Minuten zu üben. [60] Einige Techniken deuten auf weniger Zeit, [37] besonders beim Beginn der Meditation [61] und Richie Davidson hin Zitierte Forschungsergebnisse sagen, dass ein Nutzen von nur 8 Minuten pro Tag erreicht werden kann. [62] Einige Meditierende üben viel länger, [63][64] insbesondere wenn sie einen Kurs oder einen Rückzug absolvieren. [65] Einige Meditierende finden die beste Übung in den Stunden zuvor Morgenröte. [66]


Körperhaltungen und -techniken [ edit ]



Junge Kinder üben Meditation in einer peruanischen Schule

Während Asanas und Positionen wie Volllotus, Halblotus, Burmesisch, Seiza und kniende Positionen sind in Budd beliebt Hism, Jainism and Hinduism, [67] Andere Positionen wie Sitzen, Rücken (Liegen) und Stehen werden ebenfalls verwendet. Meditation findet manchmal auch beim Gehen statt, bekannt als Kinhin oder während einer einfachen Aufgabe, die als Samu bekannt ist. [68]


Verwendung von Gebetsperlen [ edit


Einige alte Religionen von Die Welt hat eine Tradition der Verwendung von Gebetsperlen als Hilfsmittel in der Devotionalen-Meditation. [69][70][71] Die meisten Gebetsperlen und christlichen Rosenkränze bestehen aus Perlen oder Perlen, die durch einen Faden miteinander verbunden sind. [69][70] Der römisch-katholische Rosenkranz ist eine Perlenkette, die fünf Sätze enthält mit zehn kleinen Perlen. Der Hindu Japa Mala hat 108 Perlen (die Zahl 108 an sich hat spirituelle Bedeutung, ebenso wie diejenigen, die im Jainismus und bei buddhistischen Gebetsperlen verwendet werden.) [72] Jede Perle wird einmal gezählt, wenn eine Person ein Mantra rezitiert, bis die Person alle gegangen ist Weg um die Mala. [72] Das muslimische Misbaha hat 99 Perlen.


Mögliche Vorteile der Unterstützung der Meditationspraxis mit einer Erzählung [ edit ]


Richie Davidson hat die Ansicht geäußert, dass eine Erzählung dazu beitragen kann, die tägliche Praxis aufrechtzuerhalten. [62] Zum Beispiel er selbst unterwirft sich den Lehren und meditiert "nicht in erster Linie zu meinem Nutzen, sondern zu Gunsten anderer". [62]


Religiöse und spirituelle Meditation


indische Religionen edit ]


Jainism [ edit ]




Im Jainismus war Meditation eine der wichtigsten spirituellen Praktiken, die Jains seit den Lehren angenommen haben der Tirthankara, Rishabha. [73] Alle vierundzwanzig Tirthankaras übten tiefe Meditation und erreichten Erleuchtung. [74] Sie sind alle in meditativen Positionen in den Bildern oder Götzen dargestellt. Mahavira praktizierte zwölf Jahre lang tiefe Meditation und erlangte die Erleuchtung. [75] Das auf 500 v.Chr. Datierende Acaranga-Sutra behandelt das Meditationssystem des Jainismus im Detail. [76] Acharya Bhadrabahu aus dem 4. Jahrhundert v. Chr. Mahaprana Meditation für zwölf Jahre. [77] Kundakunda aus dem 1. Jahrhundert v. Chr. eröffnete durch seine Bücher Samayasāra Pravachansar und andere neue Dimensionen der Meditation in der Jain-Tradition. [78] Jain Der Philosoph Haribhadra trug durch seine Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya, die verschiedene Yogasysteme, einschließlich Hindu-, Buddhismus- und Jainasysteme, vergleicht und analysiert, zur Entwicklung von Jain Yoga bei.

Jaines Meditation und spirituelles Übungssystem wurden als Erlösungspfad bezeichnet. Es hat drei wichtige Teile, die Ratnatraya "Drei Juwelen" genannt werden: rechte Wahrnehmung und Glaube, richtiges Wissen und richtiges Verhalten. [79] Die Meditation im Jainismus zielt darauf ab, das Selbst zu verwirklichen, die Erlösung zu erlangen, die Seele zu vollenden Freiheit. [80] Sie zielt darauf ab, im reinen Zustand der Seele zu erreichen und zu bleiben, der als reines Bewusstsein betrachtet wird, jenseits jeglicher Anhaftung oder Abneigung. Der Praktizierende ist bestrebt, nur ein Kenner (Gyata-Drashta) zu sein. Jain-Meditation kann allgemein in Dharmya Dhyana und Shukla Dhyana kategorisiert werden.

Es gibt eine Reihe von Meditationstechniken, wie pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, savīrya-dhyāna usw. In padāstha-bajarata konzentriert sich auf Mantra. [81] Ein Mantra kann entweder eine Kombination von Kernbuchstaben oder Wörtern über Gottheit oder Themen sein. Es gibt eine reiche Tradition des Mantras im Jainismus. Alle Jain-Anhänger, unabhängig von ihrer Sekte, ob Digambara oder Svetambara, praktizieren das Mantra. Mantra-Gesänge sind ein wichtiger Teil des täglichen Lebens von Jain-Mönchen und -Anhängern. Das Mantra-Singen kann entweder laut oder leise durchgeführt werden. Yogasana und Pranayama sind seit Jahren eine wichtige Praxis. Pranayama - Atemübungen - werden zur Stärkung der fünf Pranas oder der Lebensenergie durchgeführt. [82] Yogasana und Pranayama gleichen die Funktionsweise des neuroendokrinen Systems des Körpers aus und helfen dabei, eine gute körperliche Aktivität zu erreichen , psychische und emotionale Gesundheit. [83]

Kontemplation ist eine sehr alte und wichtige Meditationstechnik. Der Praktizierende meditiert tief über subtile Fakten. In agnya vichāya betrachtet man sieben Fakten - Leben und Nichtleben, Zufluss, Knechtschaft, Stillstand und Entfernung von karmas und die endgültige Vollendung der Befreiung. In apaya vichāya denkt man über die falschen Einsichten nach, die man sich hingibt, was schließlich richtige Einsicht entwickelt. In vipaka vichāya reflektiert man die acht Ursachen oder Grundtypen von Karma . sansathan vichāya denkt man an die Weite des Universums und an die Einsamkeit der Seele. [81]

Acharya Mahapragya formulierte in den 1970er Jahren eine Preksha-Meditation und präsentierte organisiertes System der Meditation. Asana und Pranayama Meditation, Kontemplation, Mantra und Therapie sind ihre wesentlichen Bestandteile. [84] Zahlreiche Preksha-Meditationszentren entstanden auf der ganzen Welt, und es werden zahlreiche Meditationslager organisiert, um darin Schulungen zu geben.


Buddhismus [ edit ]




Buddhistische Meditation bezieht sich auf meditative Praktiken, die mit der Religion und der Philosophie des Buddhismus verbunden sind. Meditationstechniken des Kerns sind in alten buddhistischen Texten erhalten geblieben und haben sich durch Lehrer-Schüler-Übertragungen vermehrt und diversifiziert. Buddhisten verfolgen Meditation als Teil des Weges zum Erwachen und Nirvana. [85] Die engsten Worte für die Meditation in den klassischen Sprachen des Buddhismus sind bhāvanā [86] jhāna / dhyāna ][87] und vipassana .

Buddhistische Meditationstechniken sind in der ganzen Welt immer beliebter geworden, und viele Nicht-Buddhisten greifen sie aus verschiedenen Gründen auf. Es gibt eine beträchtliche Homogenität zwischen meditativen Praktiken - wie etwa der Atemmeditation und verschiedenen Erinnerungen ( anussati ) -, die in allen buddhistischen Schulen verwendet werden, sowie beträchtlicher Vielfalt. Allein in der Theravāda-Tradition gibt es über fünfzig Methoden zur Entwicklung von Achtsamkeit und vierzig für Konzentrationsentwicklung, während es in der tibetischen Tradition Tausende von Visualisierungsmeditationen gibt. [88] Die meisten klassischen und zeitgenössischen buddhistischen Meditationsführer sind schulspezifisch. [89]

Gemäß der kommentierenden Tradition von Theravada und Sarvastivada sowie der tibetischen Tradition [90] soll der Buddha zwei überragende mentale Qualitäten identifiziert haben, die sich aus der meditativen Praxis ergeben:


  • "Gelassenheit" oder "Gelassenheit" (Pali: samatha ), die den Geist stabilisiert, zusammenstellt, vereint und konzentriert;

  • "Einsicht" (Pali: vipassana ) welche ermöglicht es, "Formationen" (konditionierte Phänomene, die auf den fünf Aggregaten basieren) zu sehen, zu erforschen und zu unterscheiden. [91]

Durch die meditative Entwicklung der Gelassenheit kann man die verdeckenden Hindernisse schwächen und den Geist zu einem gesammelten, geschmeidigen und stillen bringen Zustand (Samadhi). Diese Geistesqualität unterstützt dann die Entwicklung von Einsicht und Weisheit (Prajñā), die die Natur der Phänomene "klar erkennen" ( vi-passana ). Was genau ist in den buddhistischen Traditionen verschieden zu sehen. [90] In Theravada sind alle Phänomene als unbeständig, leidend, nicht-selbst und leer zu sehen. Wenn dies geschieht, entwickelt man für alle Phänomene, einschließlich aller negativen Eigenschaften und Hindernisse, leidenschaftsloses Verhalten ( viraga ) und lässt sie los. Durch die Befreiung der Hindernisse und das Ende des Verlangens durch die meditative Entwicklung der Einsicht erlangt man Befreiung. [92]

In der Neuzeit wurde die buddhistische Meditation durch den Einfluss von immer beliebter Der buddhistische Modernismus im asiatischen Buddhismus und das westliche Interesse an Zen und der Vipassana-Bewegung. Die Ausbreitung der buddhistischen Meditation in die westliche Welt entsprach der Ausbreitung des Buddhismus im Westen. Die buddhistische Meditation hat auch die westliche Psychologie beeinflusst, insbesondere durch die Arbeit von Jon Kabat-Zinn, der 1979 die Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) gründete. [93] Das modernisierte Konzept der Achtsamkeit (basierend auf dem buddhistischen Begriff sati ) und verwandte meditative Praktiken führten wiederum zu mehreren auf Achtsamkeit basierenden Therapien.


Hinduismus [ edit ]



Es gibt viele Schulen und Meditationsstile innerhalb des Hinduismus. [94]


Traditional [ edit [19456530]



vormoderne und traditionelle hinduistische Religionen, Yoga und Dhyana dienen der Vereinigung des ewigen Selbst oder der Seele, des eigenen Mannes. In einigen hinduistischen Traditionen wie Advaita Vedanta wird dies mit dem allgegenwärtigen und nicht-dualen Brahman gleichgesetzt. In anderen, wie der dualistischen Yoga-Schule und Samkhya, wird das Selbst als Purusha bezeichnet, ein reines Bewusstsein, das von der Materie getrennt ist. Je nach Tradition wird dieses befreiende Ereignis als Moksha, Vimukti oder Kaivalya bezeichnet.

Die frühesten eindeutigen Hinweise auf Meditation in der Hindu-Literatur finden sich in den mittleren Upanishaden und im Mahabharata, wobei letzterer die Bhagavad Gita einschließt. [95][96] Laut Gavin Flood bezieht sich die frühere Brihadaranyaka Upanishad auf Meditation, wenn " Nachdem man ruhig und konzentriert geworden ist, nimmt man das Selbst ( Atman ) in sich selbst wahr ". [94]

Einer der einflussreichsten Texte des klassischen Hindu-Yoga ist Patañjalis Yoga-Sutras ( ca. 400 n.Chr.), ein Text, der mit Yoga und Samkhya verbunden ist und acht Gliedmaßen beschreibt, die nach Kaivalya führen ("Einsamkeit"). Dies sind ethische Disziplin (yamas), Regeln (niyamas), Körperhaltungen (āsanas), Atemkontrolle (prāṇāyama), Entzug von den Sinnen (pratyāhāra), Ein-Punkt-Gedanken (dhāraṇā), Meditation (dhyāna) und schließlich samādhi .

Spätere Entwicklungen in der Hind-Meditation umfassen die Kompilierung von Hatha-Yoga-Kompendien wie Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika, die Entwicklung von Bhakti-Yoga als Hauptform der Meditation und Tantra. Ein weiterer wichtiger Hindu-Yoga-Text ist der Yoga Yajnavalkya, der Hatha-Yoga und die Vedanta-Philosophie verwendet.

Im sechsten Kapitel von Bhāvārthadipikā [97] wird die Meditation im Yoga zur Bhagavad-Gita von Sri Jñaneesvar (Dnyaneshwar) [98] als ein Zustand beschrieben, der durch das spontane Erwachen der heiligen Energie Kundalini (nicht Prana oder Chi) verursacht wird ), wodurch eine Verbindung des individuellen Seele Ātman mit dem universalen Geist - Paramātman - hergestellt wird.


Modern [ edit ]


Meditation wird in modernen hinduistischen religiösen Bewegungen verwendet.


Sikhismus [ edit ]




Im Sikhismus sind Simran (Meditation) und gute Taten beide notwendig, um die spirituellen Ziele der Devotees zu erreichen; [99] Ohne gute Taten ist Meditation vergeblich. Wenn Sikhs meditieren, versuchen sie, Gottes Gegenwart zu spüren und in das göttliche Licht einzutauchen. [100] Nur der göttliche Wille oder die göttliche Ordnung ermöglicht es einem Devotee, zu meditieren. Guru Nanak in der Japji-Sahib-Tageszeitung Sikh erklärt:

Besuche von Tempeln, Buße, Mitleid und Nächstenliebe bringen Ihnen nur einen sesamen Kredit. Auf seinen Namen zu hören, Ihn anzunehmen und zu verehren, erlangt er Emanzipation, indem er im Schrein der Seele badet. Alle Tugenden sind deine, o Herr! Ich habe keine; Ohne gute Taten kann man nicht einmal meditieren. [101]

Nām Japnā beinhaltet die Konzentration auf die Namen oder großen Attribute Gottes. [102]

East Asian Religions [ edit


Taoism [ edit ]




Taoistische oder daoistische Meditation hat eine lange Geschichte und hat verschiedene Techniken entwickelt, darunter Konzentration, Visualisierung, Qi Kultivierung, Kontemplation und Achtsamkeitsmeditationen. Traditionelle daoistische Meditationspraktiken wurden vom chinesischen Buddhismus ab dem 5. Jahrhundert beeinflusst und beeinflussten später die traditionelle chinesische Medizin und die chinesischen Kampfkünste.

Livia Kohn unterscheidet drei Grundtypen der daoistischen Meditation: "Konzentrativ", "Einsicht" und "Visualisierung". [103] Ding 定 (wörtlich bedeutet "Entscheiden; sich niederlassen; stabilisieren") bezieht sich auf "tiefe Konzentration" ", absichtliche Kontemplation" oder "perfekte Absorption". Guan lit (lit. "watch; watch; view; view") Meditation sucht die Vereinigung mit dem Dao. Es wurde von Daoist-Meistern der Tang-Dynastie (618–907) entwickelt, die auf der Tiantai buddhistischen Praxis von Vipassanā "Einsicht" oder "Weisheit" -Meditation basierten. Cun lit (wörtlich "existieren; überleben; überleben") hat das Gefühl, in den von den Daoist-Schulen Shangqing und Lingbao beliebten Meditationstechniken "existieren zu lassen"; Ein Meditierende visualisiert oder aktualisiert Sonnen- und Mondessenzen, Lichter und Gottheiten in seinem Körper, was angeblich zu Gesundheit und Langlebigkeit führt, sogar xian imm / 仚 / 僊, "Unsterblichkeit".

Der (späte 4. Jahrhundert v. Chr.) Guanzi Essay Neiye "Inward Training" ist die älteste erhaltene Schrift zum Thema Qi Anbau und Atemkontrolle Meditationstechniken. [104] Zum Beispiel: "Wenn Sie Ihren Verstand vergrößern und loslassen, wenn Sie Ihren vitalen Atem entspannen und sich ausdehnen, wenn Ihr Körper ruhig und unbeweglich ist: Und Sie können den Einen erhalten und die unzähligen Störungen verwerfen Dies wird als "den vitalen Atem drehen" bezeichnet: Ihre Gedanken und Taten wirken himmlisch. " [105]

Der (ca. 3. Jahrhundert v. Chr.) Daoist Zhuangzi Aufzeichnungen zuowang oder Meditation "sitzendes Vergessen". Konfuzius bat seinen Schüler Yan Hui, zu erklären, was "sitzen und vergessen" bedeutet: "Ich bin von Gliedmaßen und Rumpf geschwemmt, schwächt meine Intelligenz ab, weicht von meiner Form ab, hinterlässt Wissen und werde mit dem Transformational Thoroughfare identisch." [106]

Daoistische Meditationspraktiken sind von zentraler Bedeutung für die chinesischen Kampfkünste (und einige japanische Kampfkünste), insbesondere für die mit qi in Verbindung stehenden neijia "internen Kampfkünste". Einige bekannte Beispiele sind Daoyin "Führen und Ziehen", Qigong "Lebensenergie-Übungen", Neigong "Interne Übungen", Neidan "Innere Alchemie" und Taijiquan "Großes ultimatives Boxen", was als bewegende Meditation gedacht wird. Eine häufige Erklärung steht im Gegensatz zu "Bewegung in Stille", die sich auf die energetische Visualisierung der Zirkulation von Qi in Qigong und zuochan "sitzender Meditation" bezieht, [39] versus "Stille in" Bewegung "in Bezug auf einen Zustand der meditativen Ruhe in Taijiquan Formen.


Iranische Religionen [ edit ]


Bahá'í Faith [ edit ]


In den Lehren der Bahá'í Faith, Meditation zusammen mit dem Gebet sind beide primäre Werkzeuge für die geistige Entwicklung [107] und beziehen sich hauptsächlich auf das Nachdenken über die Worte Gottes. [108] Während Gebet und Meditation miteinander verbunden sind, wo Meditation im Allgemeinen in einer Gebetseinstellung stattfindet, wird Gebet speziell als Hinwendung zu Gott betrachtet [109] und Meditation wird als Verbindung mit dem eigenen Ich verstanden, bei dem man sich auf das Göttliche konzentriert [108]

Die Lehren der Bahá'í stellen fest, dass der Zweck der Meditation darin besteht, das Verständnis der Worte Gottes zu stärken und die Seele anfälliger für ihre potenziell transformative Kraft zu machen, [19459238[108] empfänglicher für die Notwendigkeit von Gebet und Meditation, um eine geistige Verbindung mit Gott herzustellen und aufrechtzuerhalten. [110]

Bahá'u'lláh, der Gründer der Religion, hat nie eine bestimmte Form der Meditation angegeben, und somit ist jeder Mensch frei, seine eigene Form zu wählen. [107] Er hat jedoch ausdrücklich angegeben, dass Bahá'ís zweimal täglich eine Passage der Bahá'í-Schriften lesen sollte morgens und einmal im Abend und meditiere darüber. Er ermutigte die Menschen auch dazu, am Ende eines jeden Tages über seine eigenen Aktionen und ihren Wert nachzudenken. [108] Während des Neunzehn-Tage-Fastens, einer Periode des Jahres, in der sich die Bahá'í an ein Sonnenaufgang-Sonnenuntergang festhalten, meditieren sie und beten, um ihre spirituellen Kräfte neu zu beleben. [111]


Abrahamische Religionen [edit]


Judaism[edit]



There is evidence that Judaism has had meditative practices that go back thousands of years.[112] [113] For instance, in the Torah, the patriarch Isaac is described as going "לשוח" (lasuach) in the field – a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63).[114]

Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) that meditation was used by the prophets.[115] In the Old Testament, there are two Hebrew words for meditation: hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה‎), which means to sigh or murmurbut also to meditateand sîḥâ (Hebrew: שיחה‎), which means to museor rehearse in one's mind.[116]

Some meditative traditions have been encouraged in the school of Judaism known as Kabbalah, and some Jews have described Kabbalah as an inherently meditative field of study.[117][118][119]Aryeh Kaplan has argued that, for the Kabbalist, the ultimate purpose of meditative practice is to understand and cleave to the Divine.[116] Classic methods include the mental visualisation of the supernal realms the soul navigates through to achieve certain ends. One of the best known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the Merkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).[116]

Meditation has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called "hitbodedut" (התבודדותalternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and Mussar writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone.[120] Another Hasidic system is the Habad method of "hisbonenus", related to the Sephirah of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding.[121] This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings.

The Musar Movement, founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the nineteenth-century, emphasized meditative practices of introspection and visualization that could help to improve moral character.[122]

Jewish Buddhists have adopted Buddhist styles of meditation.[123]


Christianity[edit]




Christian meditation is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of God.[125] The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditariwhich means to concentrate. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a biblical scene involving Jesus and the Virgin Mary) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.[126]

The Rosary is a devotion for the meditation of the mysteries of Jesus and Mary.[127][128]“The gentle repetition of its prayers makes it an excellent means to moving into deeper meditation. It gives us an opportunity to open ourselves to God’s word, to refine our interior gaze by turning our minds to the life of Christ. The first principle is that meditation is learned through practice. Many people who practice rosary meditation begin very simply and gradually develop a more sophisticated meditation. The meditator learns to hear an interior voice, the voice of God”.[129]

Christian meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the portrayal of God the Father in the Bible contrasts with depictions of Krishna or Brahman in Indian teachings.[130] Unlike Eastern meditations, most styles of Christian meditations do not rely on the repeated use of mantras, and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.[131][132]

In Aspects of Christian meditationthe Catholic Church warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation.[133] In 2003, in A Christian reflection on the New Age the Vatican announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age".[134][135][136]

Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level vocal prayer, but is more structured than the multiple layers of contemplation in Christianity.[137]

In Frankfurt, Germany in 2007 the Centre for Christian Meditation and Spirituality in the Holy Cross Church, Frankfurt-Bornheim was founded by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Limburg. In and by the centre different kinds of church services are offered like for example with elements such as expressionist dance, moreover days of exercises of Christian mysticism, contemplative prayer, meditative singing, meditation courses, Zen-meditation courses, days of reflection, spiritual exercises and retreats[138]

Early studies on states of consciousness conducted by Roland Fischer [139] found evidence of mystical experience description in the writings of Saint Teresa of Avila. In her autobiography she describes that, at the peak of a praying experience "... the soul neither hears nor sees nor feels. While it lasts, none of the senses perceives or knows what is taking place".[140] This corresponds to the fourth stage described by Saint Teresa, "Devotion of Ecstasy", where the consciousness of being in the body disappears, as an effect of deep transcendent meditation in prayer.


Islam[edit]



Salah is a mandatory act of devotion performed by Muslims five times per day. The body goes through sets of different postures, as the mind attains a level of concentration called khushu'.

A second optional type of meditation, called dhikr, meaning remembering and mentioning God, is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism.[141][142] This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with fikr (thinking) which leads to knowledge.[143] By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.[144]

Numerous Sufi traditions place emphasis upon a meditative procedure which comes from the cognitive aspect to one of the two principal approaches to be found in the Buddhist traditions: that of the concentration technique, involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, this is particularly evident, where muraqaba takes the form of tamarkoz, the latter being a Persian term that means "concentration".[145]

Tafakkur or tadabbur in Sufism literally means reflection upon the universe: this is considered to permit access to a form of cognitive and emotional development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the infinite. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.[146]


Pagan and occult religions[edit]


Religions and religious movements which use magic, such as Wicca, Thelema, Neopaganism, occultism etc., often require their adherents to meditate as a preliminary to the magical work. This is because magic is often thought to require a particular state of mind in order to make contact with spirits, or because one has to visualize one's goal or otherwise keep intent focused for a long period during the ritual in order to see the desired outcome. Meditation practice in these religions usually revolves around visualization, absorbing energy from the universe or higher self, directing one's internal energy, and inducing various trance states. Meditation and magic practice often overlap in these religions as meditation is often seen as merely a stepping stone to supernatural power, and the meditation sessions may be peppered with various chants and spells.


Modern spirituality[edit]


Mantra meditation, with the use of a japa mala and especially with focus on the Hare Krishna maha-mantra, is a central practice of the Gaudiya Vaishnava faith tradition and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), also known as the Hare Krishna movement. Other popular New Religious Movements include the Ramakrishna Mission, Vedanta Society, Divine Light Mission, Chinmaya Mission, Osho, Sahaja Yoga, Transcendental Meditation, Oneness University, Brahma Kumaris and Vihangam Yoga.


New Age[edit]



New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, mysticism, yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the youth of the day rebelled against traditional religion as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance.[147]
New Age meditation as practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.[148] New Age meditation evolved into a range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance to access to other realms of consciousness to the concentration of energy in group meditation to the supreme goal of samadhi, as in the ancient yogic practice of meditation.[149]


Mindfulness[edit]



Over the past 20 years, mindfulness and mindfulness-based programs have been used to assist people, whether they be clinically sick or healthy.[150]Jon Kabat-Zinn, who founded the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program in 1979, has defined mindfulness as 'moment to moment non-judgmental awareness.'[151] Several methods are used during time set aside specifically for mindfulness meditation, such as body scan techniques or letting thought arise and pass, and also during our daily lives, such as being aware of the taste and texture of the food that we eat.[152] Some studies offer evidence that mindfulness practices are beneficial for the brain's self-regulation by increasing activity in the anterior cingulate cortex.[153] A shift from using the right prefrontal cortex is claimed to be associated with a trend away from depression and anxiety, and towards happiness, relaxation, and emotional balance.[154]


Secular applications[edit]


As stated by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, a US government entity within the National Institutes of Health that advocates various forms of Alternative Medicine, "Meditation may be practiced for many reasons, such as to increase calmness and physical relaxation, to improve psychological balance, to cope with illness, or to enhance overall health and well-being."[155][10]

Meditation techniques have also been used by Western theories of counseling and psychotherapy. Relaxation training works toward achieving mental and muscle relaxation to reduce daily stresses.
Sahaja (mental silence) meditators scored above control group for emotional well-being and mental health measures on SF-36 ratings.[156][157]

Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxation was developed by American physician Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s. In this practice one tenses and then relaxes muscle groups in a sequential pattern whilst concentrating on how they feel. The method has been seen to help people with many conditions, especially extreme anxiety.[158]
Jacobson is credited with developing the initial progressive relaxation procedure. These techniques are used in conjunction with other behavioral techniques. Originally used with systematic desensitization, relaxation techniques are now used with other clinical problems. Meditation, hypnosis and biofeedback-induced relaxation are a few of the techniques used with relaxation training.

One of the eight essential phases of EMDR (developed by Francine Shapiro), bringing adequate closure to the end of each session, also entails the use of relaxation techniques, including meditation. Multimodal therapy, a technically eclectic approach to behavioral therapy, also employs the use of meditation as a technique used in individual therapy.[159]



From the point of view of psychology and physiology, meditation can induce an altered state of consciousness.[160] Such altered states of consciousness may correspond to altered neuro-physiologic states.[161]

Today, there are many different types of meditation practiced in western culture. Mindful breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and loving kindness meditations for instance have been found to provide cognitive benefits such as relaxation and decentering. With training in meditation, depressive rumination can be decreased and overall peace of mind can flourish. Different techniques have shown to work better for different people.[162]


Sound-based meditation[edit]


Herbert Benson of Harvard Medical School conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including the Transcendental Meditation technique and Tibetan Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a book titled The Relaxation Response where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation.[163] Also in the 1970s, the American psychologist Patricia Carrington developed a similar technique called Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM).[164] In Norway, another sound-based method called Acem Meditation developed a psychology of meditation and has been the subject of several scientific studies.[165]

Biofeedback has been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind.[166]


History[edit]



Man Meditating in a Garden Setting

The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced.[167][clarification needed] Some authors have even suggested the hypothesis that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation,[168] may have contributed to the latest phases of human biological evolution.[169] Some of the earliest references to meditation are found in the Hindu Vedas of India.[167] Wilson translates the most famous Vedic mantra "Gayatri" as: "We meditate on that desirable light of the divine Savitri, who influences our pious rites" (Rigveda : Mandala-3, Sukta-62, Rcha-10). Around the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, other forms of meditation developed via Confucianism and Taoism in China as well as Hinduism, Jainism, and early Buddhism in Nepal and India.[167]

In the Roman Empire, by 20 BCE Philo of Alexandria had written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche) and concentration[170] and by the 3rd century Plotinus had developed meditative techniques.

The Pāli Canon, which dates to 1st century BCE considers Buddhist meditation as a step towards liberation.[171] By the time Buddhism was spreading in China, the Vimalakirti Sutra which dates to 100 CE included a number of passages on meditation, clearly pointing to Zen (known as Chan in China, Thiền in Vietnam, and Seon in Korea).[172] The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced meditation to other Asian countries, and in 653 the first meditation hall was opened in Singapore.[173] Returning from China around 1227, Dōgen wrote the instructions for zazen.[174][175]

The Islamic practice of Dhikr had involved the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or 9th century.[141][142] By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.[144] Interactions with Indians, Nepalese or the Sufis may have influenced the Eastern Christian meditation approach to hesychasm, but this can not be proved.[176][177] Between the 10th and 14th centuries, hesychasm was developed, particularly on Mount Athos in Greece, and involves the repetition of the Jesus prayer.[178]

Western Christian meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among Benedictine monks called Lectio Divina, i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk Guigo II in the 12th century with the Latin terms lectiomeditatiooratioand contemplatio (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such as Ignatius of Loyola and Teresa of Avila in the 16th century.[179][180][181][182]

Secular forms of meditation were introduced in India in the 1950s as a modern form of Hindu meditative techniques and arrived in Australia in the late 1950s[183] and, the United States and Europe in the 1960s. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement.[167][184] Both spiritual and secular forms of meditation have been subjects of scientific analyses. Research on meditation began in 1931, with scientific research increasing dramatically during the 1970s and 1980s.[185] Since the beginning of the '70s more than a thousand studies of meditation in English have been reported.[185] However, after 60 years of scientific study, the exact mechanism at work in meditation remains unclear.[167]


Modern dissemination in the west[edit]


Methods of meditation have been cross-culturally disseminated at various times throughout history, such as Buddhism going to East Asia, and Sufi practices going to many Islamic societies. Of special relevance to the modern world is the dissemination of meditative practices since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of numerous Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has also been revived,[186] and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.[187] Also evident is some extent of influence over Enlightenment thinking through Denis Diderot's Encyclopédiealthough he states, "I find that a meditation practitioner is often quite useless and that a contemplation practitioner is always insane".[188]

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity",[30]:3 and such ideas "came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s."[30]:3 The following decades saw further spread of these ideas to America:



The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda... [founded] various Vedanta ashrams... Anagarika Dharmapala lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha ... [toured] the US teaching the principles of Bahai, and Soyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen...[30]:4




More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. Observers have suggested many types of explanations for this interest in Eastern meditation and revived Western contemplation. Thomas Keating, a founder of Contemplative Outreach, wrote that "the rush to the East is a symptom of what is lacking in the West. There is a deep spiritual hunger that is not being satisfied in the West."[189]:31Daniel Goleman, a scholar of meditation, suggested that the shift in interest from "established religions" to meditative practices "is caused by the scarcity of the personal experience of these [meditation-derived] transcendental states – the living spirit at the common core of all religions."[4]:xxiv

Another suggested contributing factor is the rise of communist political power in Asia, which "set the stage for an influx of Asian spiritual teachers to the West",[30]:7 oftentimes as refugees.[190]


Meditation in the workplace[edit]


A 2010 review of the literature on spirituality and performance in organizations found an increase in corporate meditation programs.[191]

As of 2016 around a quarter of U.S. employers were using stress reduction initiatives.[192][193] The goal was to help reduce stress and improve reactions to stress. Aetna now offers its program to its customers. Google also implements mindfulness, offering more than a dozen meditation courses, with the most prominent one, "Search Inside Yourself", having been implemented since 2007.[193]General Mills offers the Mindful Leadership Program Series, a course which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, yoga and dialog with the intention of developing the mind's capacity to pay attention.[193]


Research on meditation[edit]



Research on the processes and effects of meditation is a subfield of neurological research.[9] Modern scientific techniques, such as fMRI and EEG, were used to observe neurological responses during meditation.[194] Since the 1950s, hundreds of studies on meditation have been conducted, though the overall methological quality of meditation research is poor, yielding unreliable results.[195]

Since the 1970s, clinical psychology and psychiatry have developed meditation techniques for numerous psychological conditions.[196] Mindfulness practice is employed in psychology to alleviate mental and physical conditions, such as reducing depression, stress, and anxiety.[9][197][198] Mindfulness is also used in the treatment of drug addiction.[199] Studies demonstrate that meditation has a moderate effect to reduce pain.[9] There is insufficient evidence for any effect of meditation on positive mood, attention, eating habits, sleep, or body weight.[9]

A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of meditation on empathy, compassion, and prosocial behaviors found that meditation practices had small to medium effects on self-reported and observable outcomes, concluding that such practices can "improve positive prosocial emotions and behaviors".[200]

Preliminary studies showed a potential relationship between meditation and job performance, resulting from cognitive and social effects.[201][202]

Concerns have been raised on the quality of much meditation research,[203][204] including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate.[205]


Differences in effects of different methods[edit]


Evidence from neuroimaging studies suggests that the categories of meditation, as defined by how they direct attention, appear to generate different brainwave patterns.[32][47] Evidence also suggests that using different focus objects during meditation may generate different brainwave patterns.[206]


Prevalence of meditation[edit]


The 2012 US National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) (n = 34,525), found 8.0% of US adults used meditation,[207] with lifetime and 12-month prevalence of meditation use of 5.2% and 4.1% respectively.[208] In the 2017 survey meditation use among workers was 9.9% (up from 8.0% in 2002).[209]


Meditation, religion and drugs[edit]




Many major traditions in which meditation is practiced, such as Buddhism[210] and Hinduism,[211] advise members not to consume intoxicants, while others, such as the Rastafarian movements and Native American Church, view drugs as integral to their religious lifestyle.

The fifth of the five precepts of the Pancasila, the ethical code in the Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions, states that adherents must: "abstain from fermented and distilled beverages that cause heedlessness."[212]

On the other hand, the ingestion of psychoactives has been a central feature in the rituals of many religions, in order to produce altered states of consciousness. In several traditional shamanistic ceremonies, drugs are used as agents of ritual. In the Rastafari movement, cannabis is believed to be a gift from Jah and a sacred herb to be used regularly, while alcohol is considered to debase man. Native Americans use peyote, as part of religious ceremony, continuing today.[213] In India, the soma drink has a long history of use alongside prayer and sacrifice, and is mentioned in the Vedas.

During the 1960s and 70s, both eastern meditation traditions and psychedelics, such as LSD, became popular in America, and it was suggested that LSD use and meditation were both means to the same spiritual/existential end.[214] Many practitioners of eastern traditions rejected this idea, including many who had tried LSD themselves. In The Master GameRobert S de Ropp writes that the "door to full consciousness" can be glimpsed with the aid of substances, but to "pass beyond the door" requires yoga and meditation. Other authors, such as Rick Strassman, believe that the relationship between religious experiences reached by way of meditation and through the use of psychedelic drugs deserves further exploration.[215]


Criticism[edit]


Mindfulness meditation, in its modern form, is regarded by psychologist Thomas Joiner to have been "corrupted" for commercial gain by self-help celebrities, and he suggests that it encourages narcissistic and self-obsessed mindsets which can be unhealthy.[216][217]

There has been some reporting of cases where meditating correlated with negative experiences for the meditator.[218][219][220][221]


See also[edit]






  1. ^ Bond et al. 2009: "Logic relaxation is defined by the authors as “not ‘to intend’ to analyzing (not trying to explain) the possible psychophysi"cal effects,” “not ‘to intend’ to judging (good, bad, right, wrong) the possible psychophysical [effects],” and “not ‘to intend’ to creating any type of expectation regarding the process.” (Cardoso et al., 2004, p. 59)"


References[edit]



  1. ^ a b c Roger Walsh & Shauna L. Shapiro (2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue". American Psychologist (Submitted manuscript). 61 (3): 227–39. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227. ISSN 0003-066X. PMID 16594839.

  2. ^ a b c B. Rael Cahn; John Polich (2006). "Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (2): 180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180. ISSN 0033-2909. PMID 16536641.

  3. ^ a b c R. Jevning; R.K. Wallace; M. Beidebach (1992). "The physiology of meditation: A review: A wakeful hypometabolic integrated response". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 16 (3): 415–24. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(05)80210-6. PMID 1528528.

  4. ^ a b c d e f Goleman, Daniel (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5.

  5. ^ a b "Definition of meditate". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 18 December 2017. Retrieved 25 December 2017.

  6. ^ a b c "meditate – Definition of meditate in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries – English.

  7. ^ For the 14th Dalai Lama the aim of meditation is "to maintain a very full state of alertness and mindfulness, and then try to see the natural state of your consciousness."

  8. ^ "Meditation: In Depth". NCCIH.

  9. ^ a b c d e Goyal, M; Singh, S; Sibinga, E.M.; Gould, N.F.; Rowland-Seymour, A; Sharma, R; Berger, Z; Sleicher, D; Maron, D.D.; Shihab, H.M.; Ranasinghe, P.D.; Linn, S; Saha, S; Bass, E.B.; Haythornthwaite, J.A (2014). "Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–68. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196.

  10. ^ a b Shaner, Lynne; Kelly, Lisa; Rockwell, Donna; Curtis, Devorah (2016). "Calm Abiding". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 57: 98. doi:10.1177/0022167815594556.

  11. ^ Campos, Daniel; Cebolla, Ausiàs; Quero, Soledad; Bretón-López, Juana; Botella, Cristina; Soler, Joaquim; García-Campayo, Javier; Demarzo, Marcelo; Baños, Rosa María (2016). "Meditation and happiness: Mindfulness and self-compassion may mediate the meditation–happiness relationship". Personality and Individual Differences. 93: 80–85. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.040. hdl:10234/157867.

  12. ^ An universal etymological English dictionary 1773, London, by Nathan Bailey ISBN 1-002-37787-0.

  13. ^ a b "Meditation". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019.

  14. ^ The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 ISBN 0-8146-3176-2 p. 115

  15. ^ Feuerstein, Georg. "Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana)." Moksha Journal. Issue 1. 2006. ISSN 1051-127X, OCLC 21878732

  16. ^ The verb root "dhyai" is listed as referring to "contemplate, meditate on" and "dhyāna" is listed as referring to "meditation; religious contemplation" on page 134 of Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1971) [Reprinted from 1929]. A practical Sanskrit dictionary with transliteration, accentuation and etymological analysis throughout. London: Oxford University Press.

  17. ^ Mirahmadi, Sayyid Nurjan; Naqshbandi, Muhammad Nazim Adil al-Haqqani; Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham; Mirahmadi, Hedieh (2005). The healing power of sufi meditation. Fenton, MI: Naqshbandi Haqqani Sufi Order of America. ISBN 978-1-930409-26-2.

  18. ^ Mary Carroll (2005). "Divine therapy: Teaching reflective and meditative practices". Teaching Theology and Religion. 8 (4): 232–38. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9647.2005.00249.x.

  19. ^ a b "Lutz A., Dunne J.D., Davidson R.J. Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: an Introduction in Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness edited by Zelazo P., Moscovitch M. and Thompson E. (2007)" (PDF).

  20. ^ "meditation – Meaning". Cambridge English Dictionary.

  21. ^ "members were chosen on the basis of their publication record of research on the therapeutic use of meditation, their knowledge of and training in traditional or clinically developed meditation techniques, and their affiliation with universities and research centers. Each member had specific expertise and training in at least one of the following meditation practices: kundalini yoga, Transcendental Meditation, relaxation response, mindfulness-based stress reduction, and vipassana meditation" (Bond, Ospina et al., 2009, p. 131); their views were combined using "the Delphi technique [...] a method of eliciting and refining group judgments to address complex problems with a high level of uncertainty" (p. 131).

  22. ^ a b c Kenneth Bond; Maria B. Ospina; Nicola Hooton; Liza Bialy; Donna M. Dryden; Nina Buscemi; David Shannahoff-Khalsa; Jeffrey Dusek; Linda E. Carlson (2009). "Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for "meditation"". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 1 (2): 129–37. doi:10.1037/a0015736.

  23. ^ The full quotation from Bond, Ospina et al. (2009, p. 135) reads:

    "It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by 'family resemblances' (Wittgenstein, 1968) or by the related 'prototype' model of concepts (Rosch, 1973; Rosch & Mervin, 1975)."

  24. ^ Number of citations in PsycINFO: 254 for Walsh & Shapiro, 2006 (26 August 2018); 561 for Cahn & Polich, 2006 (26 August 2018); 83 for Jevning et al. (1992) (26 August 2018).

  25. ^ a b Lutz, Dunne and Davidson, "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction" in The Cambridge handbook of consciousness by Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch, Evan Thompson, 2007 ISBN 0-521-85743-0 pp. 499–551 (proof copy) (NB: pagination of published was 499–551 proof was 497–550). Archived March 3, 2012, at the Wayback Machine

  26. ^ This does not mean that all meditation seeks to take a person beyond all thought processes, only those processes that are sometimes referred to as "discursive" or "logical" (see Shapiro, 1982/1984; Bond, Ospina, et al., 2009; Appendix B, pp. 279–82 in Ospina, Bond, et al., 2007).

  27. ^ An influential definition by Shapiro (1982) states that "meditation refers to a family of techniques which have in common a conscious attempt to focus attention in a nonanalytical way and an attempt not to dwell on discursive, ruminating thought" (p. 6, italics in original); the term "discursive thought" has long been used in Western philosophy, and is often viewed as a synonym to logical thought (Rappe, Sara (2000). Reading neoplatonism : Non-discursive thinking in the texts of plotinus, proclus, and damascius. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65158-5.).

  28. ^ Bond, Ospina et al. (2009) – see fuller discussion elsewhere on this page – report that 7 expert scholars who had studied different traditions of meditation agreed that an "essential" component of meditation "Involves logic relaxation: not 'to intend' to analyze the possible psychophysical effects, not 'to intend' to judge the possible results, not 'to intend' to create any type of expectation regarding the process" (p. 134, Table 4). In their final consideration, all 7 experts regarded this feature as an "essential" component of meditation; none of them regarded it as merely "important but not essential" (p. 234, Table 4). (This same result is presented in Table B1 in Ospina, Bond, et al., 2007, p. 281)

  29. ^ a b "John Dunne's speech". Archived from the original on November 20, 2012.

  30. ^ a b c d e Eugene Taylor (1999). Michael Murphy; Steven Donovan; Eugene Taylor, eds. "Einführung". The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996: 1–32.

  31. ^ Robert Ornstein (1972, originally published 1971), in: Naranjo and Orenstein, On the Psychology of Meditation. New York: Wikinger. LCCN 76-149720

  32. ^ a b c Lutz, Antoine; Slagter, Heleen A.; Dunne, John D.; Davidson, Richard J. (April 2008). "Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 12 (4): 163–69. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005. PMC 2693206. PMID 18329323. The term ‘meditation’ refers to a broad variety of practices...In order to narrow the explanandum to a more tractable scope, this article uses Buddhist contemplative techniques and their clinical secular derivatives as a paradigmatic framework (see e.g., 9,10 or 7,9 for reviews including other types of techniques, such as Yoga and Transcendental Meditation). Among the wide range of practices within the Buddhist tradition, we will further narrow this review to two common styles of meditation, FA and OM (see box 1–box 2), that are often combined, whether in a single session or over the course of practitioner's training. These styles are found with some variation in several meditation traditions, including Zen, Vipassanā and Tibetan Buddhism (e.g. 7,15,16)....The first style, FA meditation, entails voluntary focusing attention on a chosen object in a sustained fashion. The second style, OM meditation, involves non-reactively monitoring the content of experience from moment to moment, primarily as a means to recognize the nature of emotional and cognitive patterns

  33. ^ The full quote from Bond, Ospina et al. (2009, p. 130) reads: "The differences and similarities among these techniques is often explained in the Western meditation literature in terms of the direction of mental attention (Koshikawa & Ichii, 1996; Naranjo, 1971; Orenstein, 1971): A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called concentrative meditation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness (Orenstein, 1971)."

  34. ^ Easwaran, Eknath (2018). The Bhagavad Gita: (Classics of Indian Spirituality). Nilgiri Press. ISBN 978-1-58638-019-9 – via Google Books.

  35. ^ "Single-pointed concentration (samadhi) is a meditative power that is useful in either of these two types of meditation. However, in order to develop samadhi itself we must cultivate principally concentration meditation. In terms of practice, this means that we must choose an object of concentration and then meditate single-pointedly on it every day until the power of samadhi is attained." lywa (2 April 2015). "Developing Single-pointed Concentration".

  36. ^ "Site is under maintenance". meditation-research.org.uk.

  37. ^ a b "Mindful Breathing (Greater Good in Action)". ggia.berkeley.edu.

  38. ^ Shonin, Edo; Van Gordon, William (2016). "Experiencing the Universal Breath: A Guided Meditation". Mindfulness. 7 (5): 1243. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0570-4.

  39. ^ a b Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto; Jeremy Holmes (March 2000). "Meditation: concepts, effects and uses in therapy". International Journal of Psychotherapy. 5 (1): 49–59. doi:10.1080/13569080050020263. Retrieved 2007-08-23.

  40. ^ "Deepening Calm-Abiding – The Nine Stages of Abiding". terebess.hu.

  41. ^ Dorje, Ogyen Trinley. "Calm Abiding".

  42. ^ "What kind of meditation is Headspace?". Help Center.

  43. ^ Manocha, Ramesh; Black, Deborah; Wilson, Leigh (10 September 2018). "Quality of Life and Functional Health Status of Long-Term Meditators". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012: 1–9. doi:10.1155/2012/350674. PMC 3352577. PMID 22611427.

  44. ^ "There might be a depth of meditation where thinking ceases. This is a refined, refreshing and nourishing state of consciousness. But it is not the goal." Kirsten Kratz, "Calm and kindness" talk, Gaia House, 03/2013

  45. ^ "Meditation". 21 June 2011.

  46. ^ "Huineng (Hui-neng) (638–713)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2018. Retrieved 28 May 2018.

  47. ^ a b Fred Travis; Jonathan Shear (2010). "Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: Categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions". Consciousness and Cognition. 19 (4): 1110–18. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.01.007. PMID 20167507.

  48. ^ "Religions – Buddhism: Meditation". BBC.

  49. ^ "Judson Brewer". University of Massachusetts Medical School. 2014-09-09.

  50. ^ "The Dalai Lama Reveals How to Practice Meditation Properly – Hack Spirit". 3 May 2017.

  51. ^ "Dalai Lama on Analytic Meditation And How It Helps Cultivate Positivity".

  52. ^ "10% Happier with Dan Harris by ABC News on Apple Podcasts".

  53. ^ Bradley, Alice. "How to Find Real Love, With Sharon Salzberg".

  54. ^ Pulse. "12 ways to be happier at work in less than 10 minutes".

  55. ^ "10% Happier with Dan Harris by ABC News on Apple Podcasts". Apple Podcasts.

  56. ^ "Guided Meditations on the Stages of the Path eBook: Thubten Chodron, H.H. the Dalai Lama, Dalai Lama: Amazon.co.uk: Kindle Store". www.amazon.co.uk.

  57. ^ "Meditations on kindness, gratitude and love".

  58. ^ https://www.amazon.co.uk/Chakra-Meditation-Swami-Saradananda/dp/1907486909

  59. ^ Meditation, Path to the Deepest SelfDorling Kindersley, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7894-8333-1

  60. ^ "The Daily Habit Of These Outrageously Successful People". 5 July 2013.

  61. ^ Mindfulness#Meditation method

  62. ^ a b c "Neuroscientist Says Dalai Lama Gave Him 'a Total Wake-Up Call'". ABC News . 27 July 2016.

  63. ^ "How Humankind Could Become Totally Useless". Time. Retrieved 17 March 2018.

  64. ^ Kaul, P; Passafiume, J; Sargent, C.R.; O'Hara, B.F. (2010). "Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need". Behavioral and Brain Functions. 6: 47. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-47 (inactive 2018-12-03). PMC 2919439. PMID 20670413.

  65. ^ "Questions & Answers – Dhamma Giri – Vipassana International Academy". www.giri.dhamma.org.

  66. ^ "Brahmamuhurta: The best time for meditation". Times of India.

  67. ^ Mallinson, James; Singleton, Mark (2017). Roots of Yoga. Pinguin-Bücher. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-241-25304-5. OCLC 928480104.

  68. ^ Ng, Teng-Kuan (2018). "Pedestrian Dharma: Slowness and Seeing in Tsai Ming-Liang's Walker". Religions. 9 (7): 200. doi:10.3390/rel9070200.

  69. ^ a b Mysteries of the Rosary by Stephen J. Binz 2005 ISBN 1-58595-519-1 p. 3

  70. ^ a b The everything Buddhism book by Jacky Sach 2003 ISBN 978-1-58062-884-6 p. 175

  71. ^ For a general overview see Beads of Faith: Pathways to Meditation and Spirituality Using Rosaries, Prayer Beads, and Sacred Words by Gray Henry, Susannah Marriott 2008 ISBN 1-887752-95-1

  72. ^ a b Meditation and Mantras by Vishnu Devananda 1999 ISBN 81-208-1615-3 pp. 82–83

  73. ^ Acharya Tulsi Key (1995). "01.01 Traditions of shramanas". Bhagwan Mahavira. JVB, Ladnun, India. Retrieved 2009-09-27.

  74. ^ Sadhvi Vishrut Vibha Key (2007). "1 History and Tradition". Introduction to Jainism. JVB, Ladnun, India.

  75. ^ Acharya Tulsi Key (1995). "04.04 accomplishment of sadhana". Bhagwan Mahavira. JVB, Ladnun, India. Retrieved 2009-09-27.

  76. ^ Ahimsa – The Science Of Peace by Surendra Bothra 1987

  77. ^ "Achraya Bhadrabahu Swami". Retrieved 2010-07-20.

  78. ^ Jain Yoga by Acharya Mahapragya 2004

  79. ^ Acharya Mahapragya (2004). "Foreword". Jain Yog. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh.

  80. ^ Acharya Tulsi (2004). "blessings". Sambodhi. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh.

  81. ^ a b Dr. Rudi Jansma; Dr. Sneh Rani Jain Key (2006). "07 Yoga and Meditation (2)". Introduction To Jainism. Prakrit Bharti Academy, jaipur, India. Retrieved 2009-09-14.

  82. ^ Dr. Rudi Jansma; Dr. Sneh Rani Jain Key (2006). "07 Yoga and Meditation (2)". Introduction To Jainism. Prakrit Bharti Academy, jaipur, India. Retrieved 2010-07-28.

  83. ^ Muni Kishan Lal Key (2007). Preksha Dhyana: Yogic Exercises. Jain Vishva Bharati. Retrieved 2010-07-28.

  84. ^ "Preksha Meditation". Preksha International. Retrieved 2010-07-26.

  85. ^ For instance, Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has Enlightenment as its ultimate aim." Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, Nibbana...." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 142: "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'" Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).

  86. ^ The Pāli and Sanskrit word bhāvanā literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term with "meditation," see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 20. As an example from a well-known discourse of the Pali Canon, in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (Maha-Rahulovada SuttaMN 62), Ven. Sariputta tells Ven. Rahula (in Pali, based on VRI, n.d.): ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. Thanissaro (2006) translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvana] of mindfulness of in-&-out breathing." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.)

  87. ^ See, for example, Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), entry for "jhāna1"[permanent dead link]; Thanissaro (1997); as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for the derivation of the word "zen" from Sanskrit "dhyāna". Pāli Text Society Secretary Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
    [T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as "altered states of consciousness". In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed "meditations" ([Skt.:] dhyāna / [Pali:] jhāna) or "concentrations" (samādhi); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world. (Gethin, 1998, p. 10.)

  88. ^ Goldstein (2003) writes that, in regard to the Satipatthana Sutta, "there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called vipassana..., and in one form or another – and by whatever name – are found in all the major Buddhist traditions" (p. 92). The forty concentrative meditation subjects refer to Visuddhimagga's oft-referenced enumeration. Regarding Tibetan visualizations, Kamalashila (2003), writes: "The Tara meditation ... is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas" (p. 227).

  89. ^ Examples of contemporary school-specific "classics" include, from the Theravada tradition, Nyanaponika (1996) and, from the Zen tradition, Kapleau (1989).

  90. ^ a b Reginald Ray (2004), What is Vipashyana?

  91. ^ These definitions of samatha and vipassana are based on the "Four Kinds of Persons Sutta" (AN 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005), pp. 269–70, 440 n. 13. See also Thanissaro (1998d).

  92. ^ See, for instance, AN 2.30 in Bodhi (2005), pp. 267–68, and Thanissaro (1998e).

  93. ^ "Mindfulness-Based Programs". University of Massachusetts Medical School. 2015-12-03.

  94. ^ a b Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.

  95. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 51. The earliest reference is actually in the Mokshadharma, which dates to the early Buddhist period.

  96. ^ The Katha Upanishad describes yoga, including meditation. On meditation in this and other post-Buddhist Hindu literature see Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, p. 199.

  97. ^ Shri, Jnaneshvar (1978). Jnaneshvari. New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 114–52. ISBN 978-0-88706-488-3.

  98. ^ "Jnanesvar and Nivritti Nath – The Great Natha Siddhas". Retrieved 2018-05-25.

  99. ^ Sharma, Suresh (2004). Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Sikhism. Mittal Publikationen. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-7099-961-4.

  100. ^ Parashar, M. (2005). Ethics And The Sex-King. AuthorHouse. p. 592. ISBN 978-1-4634-5813-3.

  101. ^ Duggal, Kartar (1980). The Prescribed Sikh Prayers (Nitnem). Abhinav Publications. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-7017-377-9.

  102. ^ Singh, Nirbhai (1990). Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations. Atlantic Publishers & Distribution. p. 105.

  103. ^ Kohn, Livia (2008), "Meditation and visualization," in The Encyclopedia of Taoismed. by Fabrizio Pregadio, p. 118.

  104. ^ Harper, Donald; Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2007) [First published in 1999]. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 880. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.

  105. ^ Roth, Harold D. (1999), Original Tao: Inward Training (Nei-yeh) and the Foundations of Taoist MysticismColumbia University Press, p. 92.

  106. ^ Mair, Victor H., tr. (1994), Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang TzuBantam Books, p. 64.

  107. ^ a b "Prayer, Meditation, and Fasting". Bahá'í International Community. 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-08-05. Retrieved 2011-07-01.

  108. ^ a b c d Smith, Peter (2000). "Meditation". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 243–44. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6.

  109. ^ Smith, Peter (2000). "Prayer". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6.

  110. ^ Effendi, Shoghi (1983). Hornby, Helen, ed. Lights of Guidance: A Bahá'í Reference File. New Delhi: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 506. ISBN 978-81-85091-46-4.

  111. ^ Effendi, Shoghi (1973). Directives from the Guardian. Hawaii Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 28.

  112. ^ The history and varieties of Jewish meditation by Mark Verman 1997 ISBN 978-1-56821-522-8 p. 1

  113. ^ Jacobs, L. (1976) Jewish Mystical TestimoniesJerusalem, Keter Publishing House Jerusalem Ltd.

  114. ^ Kaplan, A. (1978) Meditation and the BibleMaine, Samuel Weiser Inc., p. 101.

  115. ^ The history and varieties of Jewish meditation by Mark Verman 1997 ISBN 978-1-56821-522-8 p. 45

  116. ^ a b c Kaplan, A. (1985) Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide, New York Schocken Books.

  117. ^ Scholem, Gershom Gerhard (1961). Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism. Schocken Books. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8052-1042-2.

  118. ^ Kaplan, A. (1982) Meditation and KabbalahMaine, Samuel Weiser, Inc.

  119. ^ Matt, D.C. (1996) The Essential Kabbalah: The Heart of Jewish MysticismSan Francisco, HarperCollins.

  120. ^ Kaplan, A. (1978) op cit p. 2

  121. ^ Kaplan, (1982) op cit, p. 13

  122. ^ Claussen, Geoffrey. "The Practice of Musar". Conservative Judaism 63, no. 2 (2012): 3–26. Retrieved June 10, 2014

  123. ^ Michaelson, Jay (June 10, 2005). "Judaism, Meditation and The B-Word". The Forward.

  124. ^ The Rosary: A Path Into Prayer by Liz Kelly 2004 ISBN 0-8294-2024-X pp. 79, 86

  125. ^ Christian Meditation for Beginners by Thomas Zanzig, Marilyn Kielbasa 2000, ISBN 0-88489-361-8 p. 7

  126. ^ An introduction to Christian spirituality by F. Antonisamy, 2000 ISBN 81-7109-429-5 pp. 76–77

  127. ^ "Home". Archived from the original on 2017-06-01. Retrieved 2017-06-19.

  128. ^ "The Holy Rosary". www.theholyrosary.org.

  129. ^ "The Rosary as a Tool for Meditation by Liz Kelly". www.loyolapress.com.

  130. ^ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1-57383-227-8 p. 12

  131. ^ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1-57383-227-8 pp. 12–13

  132. ^ The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3 by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 ISBN 90-04-12654-6 p. 488

  133. ^ EWTN: Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation (in English), October 15, 1989]

  134. ^ Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2003, New Age Beliefs Aren't Christian, Vatican Finds

  135. ^ "Vatican sounds New Age alert". 4 February 2003 – via news.bbc.co.uk.

  136. ^ "Prersentation of Holy See's Document on New Age". www.vatican.va.

  137. ^ Simple Ways to Pray by Emilie Griffin 2005 ISBN 0-7425-5084-2 p. 134

  138. ^ "Heilig Kreuz – Zentrum für christliche Meditation und Spiritualität – Programm September 2016 bis Juli 2017" (PDF) (in German). Heilig Kreuz – Zentrum für christliche Meditation und Spiritualität. 14 June 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2016.

  139. ^ Roland Fischer (1971), A Cartography of the Ecstatic and Meditative States. In Science, Vol 174 Num 4012 26 November 1971

  140. ^ Saint Teresa, The Life of Saint Teresa, J.M. Cohen, Transl. (Penquin, Baltimore, 1957), p. 142.

  141. ^ a b Prayer: a history by Philip Zaleski, Carol Zaleski 2005 ISBN 0-618-15288-1 pp. 147–49

  142. ^ a b Global Encyclopaedia of Education by Rama Sankar Yadav & B.N. Mandal 2007 ISBN 978-81-8220-227-6 p. 63

  143. ^ Sainthood and revelatory discourse by David Emmanuel Singh 2003 ISBN 81-7214-728-7 p. 154

  144. ^ a b Spiritual Psychology by Akbar Husain 2006 ISBN 81-8220-095-4 p. 109

  145. ^ Dwivedi, Kedar Nath (2016). "Book Reviews". Group Analysis. 22 (4): 434. doi:10.1177/0533316489224010.

  146. ^ Khalifa, Rashad (2001). Quran: The Final Testament. Universal Unity. p. 536. ISBN 978-1-881893-05-9.

  147. ^ Time Magazine"Youth: The Hippies" Jul. 7, 1967

  148. ^ Barnia, George (1996). The Index of Leading Spiritual Indicators. Dallas TX: Word Publishing.

  149. ^ Lash, John (1990). The Seeker's Handbook: The Complete Guide to Spiritual Pathfinding. New York: Harmony Books. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-517-57797-4.

  150. ^ "In the last 20 years, mindfulness has become the focus of considerable attention for a large community of clinicians and, to a lesser extent, empirical psychology." – Mindfulness: A Proposed Operation Definition

  151. ^ Jon Kabat-Zinn; Elizabeth Wheeler; Timothy Light; Anne Skillings; Mark J. Scharf; Thomas G. Cropley; David Hosmer; Jeffrey D. Bernhard (1998). "Influence of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention on rates of skin clearing in patients with moderate to severe psoriasis undergoing phototherapy (uvb) and photochemotherapy (puva)". Psychosomatic Medicine (Submitted manuscript). 60 (5): 625–32. doi:10.1097/00006842-199809000-00020. PMID 9773769.:626

  152. ^ Kabat-Zinn gives the body scan and food meditations in "Mindfulness for Beginners" the 2CD set, and Matthieu Ricard gives the letting thoughts arise and pass away in his 2CD set "Happiness: A Guide to Cultivating Life's Most Important Skill"

  153. ^ Tang, YY; Lu, Q; Geng, X; Stein, EA; Yang, Y; Posner, MI (2010). "Short-term meditation induces white matter changes in the anterior cingulate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (35): 15649–52. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10715649T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1011043107. PMC 2932577. PMID 20713717.

  154. ^ "Jon Kabat-Zinn gives a Google Tech Talk about introductory mindfulness practice online". YouTube.

  155. ^ "Meditation: An Introduction". NCCIH. February 2006.

  156. ^ Manocha, Ramesh; Black, Deborah; Wilson, Leigh (2012). "Quality of Life and Functional Health Status of Long-Term Meditators". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012: 1. doi:10.1155/2012/350674. PMC 3352577. PMID 22611427.

  157. ^ Manocha, Ramesh (2014). "Meditation, mindfulness and mind-emptiness". Acta Neuropsychiatrica. 23: 46. doi:10.1111/j.1601-5215.2010.00519.x.

  158. ^ see Progressive muscle relaxation from where these two references were taken showing that this method reduces extreme anxiety, 1) Craske & Barlow (2006). Worry. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-530001-7. and 2) Chen, Wen-Chun; Chu, Hsin; Lu, Ru-Band; Chou, Yuan-Hwa; Chen, Chung-Hua; Chang, Yue-Cune; o'Brien, Anthony Paul; Chou, Kuei-Ru (2009). "Efficacy of progressive muscle relaxation training in reducing anxiety in patients with acute schizophrenia". Journal of Clinical Nursing. 18 (15): 2187–96. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2008.02773.x. PMID 19583651.

  159. ^ Corey, G. (March 2000). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. p. 550. ISBN 978-0-534-34823-6.

  160. ^ Deane Shapiro "Towards an empirical understanding of meditation as an altered state of consciousness" in Meditation, classic and contemporary perspectives by Deane H. Shapiro, Roger N. Walsh 1984 ISBN 0-202-25136-5 p. 13

  161. ^ New developments in consciousness research by Vincent W. Fallio 2006 ISBN 1-60021-247-6 p. 151

  162. ^ Feldman, G. (2010). "Differential effects of mindful breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and loving-kindness meditation on decentering and negative reactions to repetitive thoughts". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 48 (10): 1002–11. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.06.006. PMC 2932656. PMID 20633873.

  163. ^ Herbert Benson; Miriam Z. Klipper (1992). The Relaxation Response. William Morrow Paperbacks, Exp Upd edition (February 8, 2000). ISBN 978-0-517-09132-6.

  164. ^ Patricia Carrington (1977). Freedom in meditation. Anchor Press. ISBN 978-0-385-11392-2.

  165. ^ Lagopoulos, Jim; Xu, Jian; Rasmussen, Inge-Andre; Vik, Alexandra; Malhi, Gin S.; Eliassen, Carl Fredrik; Arntsen, Ingrid Edith; Sæther, Jardar G; Saether, JG; Hollup, Stig Arvid; Holen, Are; Davanger, Svend; Ellingsen, Øyvind (2009). "Increased Theta and Alpha EEG Activity During Nondirective Meditation". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 15 (11): 1187–92. doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0113. PMID 19922249.

  166. ^ Rubin, Jeffrey B (2001). "A New View of Meditation". Journal of Religion and Health. 40 (1): 121–28. doi:10.1023/a:1012542524848.

  167. ^ a b c d e A clinical guide to the treatment of human stress response by George S. Everly, Jeffrey M. Lating 2002 ISBN 0-306-46620-1 pp. 199–202

  168. ^ Buddhist scholar B. Alan Wallace has argued that focused attention is a basis for the practice of mindfulness. He writes that "Truly effective meditation is impossible without focused attention... the cultivation of attentional stability has been a core element of the meditative traditions throughout the centuries" (p. xi) in Wallace, B. Alan (2006). The attention revolution: Unlocking the power of the focused mind. Boston: Wisdom. ISBN 978-0-86171-276-2.

  169. ^ Matt J. Rossano (2007). "Did meditating make us human?". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 17 (1): 47–58. Bibcode:2008CArcJ..18..327P. doi:10.1017/S0959774307000054. This paper draws on various lines of evidence to argue that "Campfire rituals of focused attention created Baldwinian selection for enhanced working memory among our Homo sapiens ancestors.... this emergence was [in part] caused by a fortuitous genetic mutation that enhanced working memory capacity [and] a Baldwinian process where genetic adaptation follows somatic adaptation was the mechanism for this emergence" (p. 47).

  170. ^ Hadot, Pierre; Arnold I. Davidson (1995) Philosophy as a way of life ISBN 0-631-18033-8 pp. 83–84

  171. ^ Zen Buddhism : a History: India and China by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter 2005 ISBN 0-941532-89-5 p. 15

  172. ^ Zen Buddhism : a History: India and China by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter 2005 ISBN 0-941532-89-5 p. 50

  173. ^ Zen Buddhism : a History: Japan by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter 2005 ISBN 0-941532-90-9 p. 5

  174. ^ Soto Zen in Medieval Japan by William Bodiford 2008 ISBN 0-8248-3303-1 p. 39

  175. ^ The Cambridge History of Japan: Medieval Japan by Kōzō Yamamura, John Whitney Hall 1990 ISBN 0-521-22354-7

  176. ^ An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches by John Binns 2002 ISBN 0-521-66738-0 p. 128

  177. ^ "Hesychasm". OrthodoxWiki. Retrieved 12 May 2010.

  178. ^ Archived from the original Archived July 29, 2010, at the Wayback Machine on February 11, 2014.

  179. ^ Christian Spirituality: A Historical Sketch by George Lane 2005 ISBN 0-8294-2081-9 p. 20

  180. ^ Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 ISBN 0-8091-3660-0 p. 38

  181. ^ The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 ISBN 0-8146-3176-2 p. 109

  182. ^ After Augustine: the meditative reader and the text by Brian Stock 2001 ISBN 0-8122-3602-5 p. 105

  183. ^ Bruhn, O (2017) Ainslie Meares on Meditation.

  184. ^ Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion by David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan 2009[ISBN missing] p. 559

  185. ^ a b Murphy, Michael. "1". The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: Scientific Studies of Contemplative Experience: An Overview. Archived from the original on June 15, 2010.

  186. ^ Gustave Reininger, ed. (1997). Centering prayer in daily life and ministry. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-1041-2.

  187. ^ The organization Contemplative Outreach Archived 2011-11-03 at the Wayback Machine, which teaches Christian Centering Prayer, has chapters in non-Western locations in Malaysia, Singapore, and South Korea (accessed 5 July 2010)

  188. ^ Diderot (Possibly) (Biography), Denis (2011-12-15). "Meditation". Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert – Collaborative Translation Project. Retrieved 2015-04-01.

  189. ^ Keating, Thomas (1997) [First published in 1986]. Open mind, open heart. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-0696-5.

  190. ^ Taylor (1999, p. 7) stated that "the increased Soviet influence in India, the Cultural Revolution in China, the Communist Chinese takeover of Tibet and Mongolia, and the increased political influence of Chinese Communism in Korea and Southeast Asia were key forces that collectively set the stage for an influx of Asian spiritual teachers to the West. An entirely new generation of them appeared on the American scene and they found a willing audience of devotees within the American counter-culture. Swami A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami, Swami Satchitananda, Guru Maharaji, Kerpal Singh, Nayanaponika Thera, Swami Rama, Thich Nhat Hanh, Chogyam Trungpa, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Swami Muktananda, Sri Bagwan Rujneesh, Pir Viliyat Kahn, and the Karmapa were but a few of the names that found followers in the United States... [and] the most well known and influential... today remains Tenzin Gyatso, the fourteenth Dalai Lama of Tibet, winner of the Nobel Pe ace Prize in 1989."

  191. ^ Karakas, Fahri (2009). "Spirituality and Performance in Organizations: A Literature Review". Journal of Business Ethics. 94: 89. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.466.9171. doi:10.1007/s10551-009-0251-5.

  192. ^ "The mind business". Financial Times. Retrieved 2016-11-21.

  193. ^ a b c "Why Google, Target, and General Mills Are Investing in Mindfulness". Harvard Business Review. Retrieved 2016-11-21.

  194. ^ Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID 24705269.

  195. ^ Ospina, M; Bond T (2007-01-06). "Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 155" (etext). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Retrieved 2012-01-27.

  196. ^ Harrington A. Dunne JD. (Oct 2015). "When mindfulness is therapy: Ethical qualms, historical perspectives". American Psychologist. 70 (7): 621–31. doi:10.1037/a0039460. PMID 26436312.

  197. ^ Strauss C, Cavanagh K, Oliver A, Pettman D (Apr 2014). "Mindfulness-Based Interventions for People Diagnosed with a Current Episode of an Anxiety or Depressive Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials". PLOS One. 9 (4): e96110. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...996110S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096110. PMC 3999148. PMID 24763812.

  198. ^ Khoury B, Sharma M, Rush SE, Fournier C (Jun 2015). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis". J Psychosom Res. 78 (6): 519–28. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009. PMID 25818837.

  199. ^ Chiesa A (Apr 2014). "Are mindfulness-based interventions effective for substance use disorders? A systematic review of the evidence". Subst Use Misuse. 49 (5): 492–512. doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.770027. PMID 23461667.

  200. ^ Luberto, Christina M.; Shinday, Nina; Song, Rhayun; Philpotts, Lisa L.; Park, Elyse R.; Fricchione, Gregory L.; Yeh, Gloria Y. (2017). "A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors". Mindfulness. 9 (3): 708–24. doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0841-8. PMC 6081743. PMID 30100929.

  201. ^ Shiba, Koichiro; Nishimoto, Masahiro; Sugimoto, Minami; Ishikawa, Yoshiki (2015). "The Association between Meditation Practice and Job Performance: A Cross-Sectional Study". PLOS One. 10 (5): e0128287. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0128287. PMC 4449168. PMID 26024382.

  202. ^ Cheng, Fung Kei (2016). "What Does Meditation Contribute to Workplace? An Integrative Review". Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture. 6 (4): 18. doi:10.1002/jpoc.21195.

  203. ^ Van Dam NT, van Vugt MK, Vago DR, Schmalzl L, Saron CD, Olendzki A, Meissner T, Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Gorchov J, Fox KC, Field BA, Britton WB, Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Meyer DE (January 2018). "Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 13 (1): 36–61. doi:10.1177/1745691617709589. PMC 5758421 Freely accessible. PMID 29016274.

  204. ^ Stetka B (October 2017). "Where's the Proof That Mindfulness Meditation Works?". Scientific American.

  205. ^ Van Dam, Nicholas T.; van Vugt, Marieke K.; Vago, David R.; Schmalzl, Laura; Saron, Clifford D.; Olendzki, Andrew; Meissner, Ted; Lazar, Sara W.; Gorchov, Jolie; Fox, Kieran C.R.; Field, Brent A.; Britton, Willoughby B.; Brefczynski-Lewis, Julie A.; Meyer, David E. (10 October 2017). "Reiterated Concerns and Further Challenges for Mindfulness and Meditation Research: A Reply to Davidson and Dahl". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 13 (1): 66–69. doi:10.1177/1745691617727529. PMC 5817993. PMID 29016240.

  206. ^ Dietrich Lehmann; P.L. Faber; Peter Achermann; Daniel Jeanmonod; Lorena R.R. Gianotti; Diego Pizzagalli (2001). "Brain sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally meditation-induced, altered states of consciousness, and experience of the self". Psychiatry Research. 108 (2): 111–21. doi:10.1016/S0925-4927(01)00116-0. PMID 11738545.

  207. ^ "8.0% of U.S. adults (18 million) used Meditation". NCCIH. 2014-11-11.

  208. ^ Cramer, Holger; Hall, Helen; Leach, Matthew; Frawley, Jane; Zhang, Yan; Leung, Brenda; Adams, Jon; Lauche, Romy (2016). "Prevalence, patterns, and predictors of meditation use among US adults: A nationally representative survey". Scientific Reports. 6: 36760. Bibcode:2016NatSR...636760C. doi:10.1038/srep36760. PMC 5103185. PMID 27829670.

  209. ^ Kachan, Diana; Olano, Henry; Tannenbaum, Stacey L.; Annane, Debra W.; Mehta, Ashwin; Arheart, Kristopher L.; Fleming, Lora E.; Yang, Xuan; McClure, Laura A.; Lee, David J. (5 January 2017). "Prevalence of Mindfulness Practices in the US Workforce: National Health Interview Survey". Preventing Chronic Disease. 14: E01. doi:10.5888/pcd14.160034. PMC 5217767. PMID 28055821.

  210. ^ O'Brien, Barbara. "The Buddhist Precepts. An Introduction". about.com.

  211. ^ Weil, Andrew (1998). The natural mind: an investigation of drugs and the higher consciousness. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. S. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-395-91156-3.

  212. ^ O'Brien, Barbara. "The Fifth Buddhist Precept". about.com.

  213. ^ "Public law 103-344 [H.R. 4230]; October 6, 1994". Retrieved 28 November 2010.

  214. ^ "A Zen Life" a documentary film about the life of D.T. Suzuki

  215. ^ Rick Strassman, DMT: The Spirit Molecule: A Doctor's Revolutionary Research into the Biology of Near-Death and Mystical Experiences320 pages, Park Street Press, 2001, ISBN 0-89281-927-8

  216. ^ "Lost in meditation: Two books argue over mindfulness". www.newscientist.com.

  217. ^ Joiner, Thomas (2017). Mindlessness: The Corruption of Mindfulness in a Culture of Narcissism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-020062-6.

  218. ^ "Does meditation carry a risk of harmful side effects?". nhs.uk. 2017-05-26.

  219. ^ "Dangers of Meditation". Psychology Today.

  220. ^ "Seriously... – Seriously... – Is Mindfulness Meditation Dangerous?". BBC Radio 4.

  221. ^ "Meditation is touted as a cure for mental instability but can it actually be bad for you?". www.independent.co.uk.


Bibliography[edit]



  • Austin, James H. (1999) Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and ConsciousnessCambridge: MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 0-262-51109-6

  • Azeemi, Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi (2005) Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation. Houston: Plato, 2005, ISBN 0-9758875-4-8

  • Bennett-Goleman, T. (2001) Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind Can Heal the Heart, Harmony Books, ISBN 0-609-60752-9

  • Benson, Herbert and Miriam Z. Klipper. (2000 [1972]). The Relaxation Response. Expanded Updated edition. Harper. ISBN 0-380-81595-8

  • Bond, Kenneth; Maria B. Ospina; Nicola Hooton; Liza Bialy; Donna M. Dryden; Nina Buscemi; David Shannahoff-Khalsa; Jeffrey Dusek & Linda E. Carlson (2009). "Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for "meditation"". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. 1 (2): 129–37. doi:10.1037/a0015736.(NB: Bond, Ospina et al.2009, has substantial overlap with the full report by Ospina, Bond et al.2007, listed below. Overlap includes the first 6 authors of this paper, and the equivalence of Table 3 on p. 134 in this paper with Table B1 on p. 281 in the full report)

  • Craven JL (October 1989). "Meditation and psychotherapy". Can J Psychiatry. 34 (7): 648–53. PMID 2680046.

  • Goleman, Daniel (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5.

  • Hanson, Rick; Mendius, Richard (2009), Buddha's Brain: The Practical Neuroscience of Happiness, Love, and WisdomNew Harbinger Publications, ISBN 978-1-57224-695-9

  • Hayes SC, Strosahl KD, Wilson KG. (1999) Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. New York: Guilford Press.

  • Kutz I, Borysenko JZ, Benson H (January 1985). "Meditation and psychotherapy: a rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy, the relaxation response, and mindfulness meditation". Am J Psychiatry. 142 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1176/ajp.142.1.1. PMID 3881049.

  • Lutz, Antoine; Richard J. Davidson; et al. (2004). "Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (November 16): 16369–73. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10116369L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407401101. PMC 526201. PMID 15534199.

  • Metzner R. (2005) Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness. In Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective ExperienceChap. 2. Mitch Earlywine, ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • MirAhmadi, As Sayed Nurjan Healing Power of Sufi Meditation The Healing Power of Sufi Meditation Paperback: 180 pages Publisher: Islamic Supreme Council of America (June 30, 2005) Language: English

  • Nirmalananda Giri, Swami (2007) Om Yoga: Its Theory and Practice In-depth study of the classical meditation method of the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and the Upanishads.

  • Ospina Maria B.; Kenneth Bond; Mohammad Karkhaneh; Lisa Tjosvold; Ben Vandermeer; Yuanyuan Liang; Liza Bialy; Nicola Hooton; Nina Buscemi; Donna M. Dryden; Terry P. Klassen (June 2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research" (PDF). Evidence Report / Technology Assessment (Full Report), Prepared by the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center Under Contract No. 290-02-0023) (155): 1–263. PMC 4780968. PMID 17764203. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-25.

  • Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto; Holmes, Jeremy (2000). "Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy". International Journal of Psychotherapy. 5 (1): 49–58. doi:10.1080/13569080050020263.

  • Saraydarian, Torkom (1976), The Science of MeditationTSG Publishing Foundation, ISBN 978-0-911794-29-8

  • Shalif, Ilan et al. (1989) Focusing on the Emotions of Daily Life (Tel-Aviv: Etext Archives, 2008)

  • Shapiro Jr, D. H (1982). "Overview: Clinical and physiological comparison of meditation with other self-control strategies". American Journal of Psychiatry. 139 (3): 267–74. doi:10.1176/ajp.139.3.267. PMID 7036760.; Reprinted as chapter 1 (pp. 5–10) in Shapiro, Deane H.; Roger N. Walsh (1984). Meditation, classic and contemporary perspectives. New York: Aldine. ISBN 978-0-202-25136-3. (the book was republished in 2008: ISBN 978-0-202-36244-1, 0-202-36244-2)

  • Shapiro DH (1992). "Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of long-term meditators". Int J Psychosom. 39 (1–4): 62–7. PMID 1428622.

  • Shear, Jonathan, ed. (2006). The experience of meditation: Experts introduce the major traditions. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. ISBN 978-1-55778-857-3.

  • Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and DyingISBN 0-06-250834-2

  • Smith, Fritz Frederick (1986): Inner Bridges: A Guide to Energy Movement and Body StructureHumanics Ltd. Partners, ISBN 978-0-89334-086-5.

  • Tart, Charles T., editor. Altered States of Consciousness (1969) ISBN 0-471-84560-4

  • Trungpa, C. (1973) Cutting Through Spiritual MaterialismShambhala South Asia Editions, Boston, Massachusetts.

  • Trungpa, C. (1984) Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the WarriorShambhala Dragon Editions, Boston, Massachusetts.

  • Erhard Vogel. (2001) Journey Into Your CenterNataraja Publications, ISBN 1-892484-05-6

  • Wenner, Melinda. "Brain Scans Reveal Why Meditation Works." LiveScience.com. 30 June 2007.

Further reading[edit]



  • Ajahn Brahm, Mindfulness Bliss and Beyond. ISBN 978-0-86171-275-5

  • Meditation & The References From Various Religions – What is Meditation.

  • Baba, Meher (1995). Discourses. Myrtle Beach, SC: Sheriar Foundation. ISBN 978-1-880619-09-4.

  • Cooper, David. A. The Art of Meditation: A Complete Guide. ISBN 81-7992-164-6

  • Easwaran, Eknath. Meditation (see article). ISBN 0-915132-66-4 new edition: Passage Meditation. ISBN 978-1-58638-026-7. The Mantram Handbook ISBN 978-1-58638-028-1

  • Glickman, Marshall (2002) Beyond the Breath: Extraordinary Mindfulness Through Whole-Body Vipassana. ISBN 1-58290-043-4

  • Goenka, S.N.. Meditation Now: Inner Peace through Inner WisdomISBN 1-928706-23-1, 978-1-928706-23-6

  • Hart, William. Art of Living, Vipassana MeditationISBN 0-06-063724-2, ISBN 978-0-06-063724-8

  • Krishnamurti, Jiddu. This Light in Oneself: True Meditation1999, Shambhala Publications. ISBN 1-57062-442-9

  • Heller, Rick. Secular Meditation: 32 Practices for Cultivating Inner Peace, Compassion, and Joy – A Guide from the Humanist Community at Harvard2015, New World Library. ISBN 978-1-60868-369-7

  • Levin, Michal. Meditation, Path to the Deepest SelfDorling Kindersley, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7894-8333-1

  • Long, Barry. Meditation: A Foundation Course – A Book of Ten Lessons. ISBN 1-899324-00-3

  • Meiche, Michele. Meditation for Everyday Living. ISBN 0-9710374-6-9

  • Monaghan, Patricia and Eleanor G. Viereck. Meditation: The Complete Guide. ISBN 1-57731-088-8

  • Oldstone-Moore, Jennifer. Understanding ConfucianismDuncan Baird, 2003. ISBN 1-904292-12-7.

  • Shankarananda, Swami. Happy For No Good ReasonShaktipat Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-9750995-1-3

  • Vethathiri Maharishi. Yoga for Modern life.

  • Wood, Ernest. Concentration – An Approach to Meditation. Theosophical Publishing House 1949. ISBN 0-8356-0176-5.

  • Yogananda, Paramahansa. Autobiography of a Yogi.

External links[edit]











Người đăng: vào lúc

Không có nhận xét nào:

Đăng nhận xét

Đăng ký: Đăng Nhận xét (Atom)